University of Tartu College of Foreign Languages and Cultures Department of Scandinavian Studies Scandinavian Languages and Cultures Kait Sepp CLOTHING, TEXTILES, AND TEXTILE WORK IN ​SNÆFELLINGASÖGUR - a comprehensive analysis Supervisors: PhD Riina Rammo PhD Mart Kuldkepp Tartu 2018 Foreword I would like to extend my utmost gratitude to everyone who made this thesis possible. Firstly, I would like to thank the Department of Scandinavian Studies and all the people I have had the privilege to learn from over the years. Professor Daniel Sävborg has been an enthusiastic guide in the world of Old Norse-Icelandic literature and helped greatly in supervising the first stages of the thesis. Secondly, a very big thank you goes out to my supervisors Dr Riina Rammo and Dr Mart Kuldkepp. Thank you Riina for your support, encouragement, and feedback, especially during the last six months. My gratitude also extends to Daniel Edward Allen for agreeing to polish my English. Last but not least, an enormous round of applause to my husband who has kept the hearth and home going while I have been submerged in Mediaeval Iceland. 2 Contents Abbreviations 6 1. Introduction 7 2. M​ ethods 9 2.1. W​ hat constitutes ‘clothing’, ‘textiles’ and ‘textile work’? 9 2.2. Analysis methods 10 3. Snæfellingasögur 12 3.1. Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa 12 3.2. Eyrbyggja saga 13 3.3. Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss 15 3.4. Víglundar saga 16 4. Textiles and textile production 18 5. Analysis 21 5.1. General references to outfit and textiles 22 5.1.1. Klæði and klæða 22 5.1.2. Búa 29 5.1.3. Fǫt 31 5.1.4. Gersemi 32 5.1.5. Gripi 32 5.1.6. Fé 33 5.1.7. Dúk and other references to clothing and textiles in general 34 5.1.8. Descriptions and names concerning clothing and textiles 36 5.2. Clothing 37 5.2.1. Kápa 37 5.2.2. Feldr 38 5.2.3. Skikkja 41 5.2.4. Möttul 43 5.2.5. Kufl 44 5.2.6. Hekla and hetta 45 3 5.2.7. Hǫttr 47 5.2.8. Kofri 48 5.2.9. Kyrtill 48 5.2.10. Skyrta 51 5.2.11. Serkr 52 5.2.12. Stakkr 53 5.2.13. ​Brók 54 5.3. Accessories 56 5.3.1. Headgear 56 5.3.2. Belts 57 5.3.3. Footwear 59 5.3.4. Leg coverings 62 5.3.5. Bags 63 5.4. Other textiles 64 5.4.1. Bed furnishings 64 5.4.2. Tents 67 5.5. Materials 67 5.5.1. Leather 67 5.5.2. ​Wool 70 5.5.3. ​Linen 72 5.5.4. ​Silk 73 5.5.5. Iron 74 5.5.6. The quality of cloth 74 5.6. Colours 75 5.6.1. ​Hvítr 76 5.6.2. Grár and móbrúnn 77 5.6.3. ​Blár and svartr 78 5.6.4. Rauðr 82 5.7. Textile work 82 6. Discussion 86 7. Conclusion 91 Resümee 92 4 Bibliography 93 Primary sources 93 Secondary sources 94 Appendix 1. References to clothing, textiles, and textile work 98 Appendix 2. List of sagas on Sagadb.org website 126 5 A​ bbreviations Bj Bjarnar Saga Hítdœlakappa​, Guðni Jónsson and Sigurður Nordal, eds., ÍF III Brð Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss,​ Bjarni Vilhjálmsson and Þórhallur Vilmundarson, eds.,​ Í​ F XIII CV Cleasby and Vigússon, ​An Icelandic-English Dictionary Erb Eyrbyggja saga​, Einar Ól. Sveinsson and Matthías Þórðarson, eds., ÍF IV ÍF Íslenzk Fornrit OED Oxford English Dictionary ONP Ordbog over det norrøne prosasprog​, accessed via http://onp.ku.dk Vgl Víglundar saga, ​Jóhannes Halldórson, ed., ÍF XIV 6 1. Introduction “Not all texts are textiles but all textiles are texts or at least textual components.” (Bohn 2004) The matter of clothing in the Icelandic sagas is not a novel subject in saga studies, as many researchers have noted the occurrence of elaborate or meaningful clothing and needlework. However, most other research known to the author has not subjected the material to a comprehensive analysis that considers all examples relating to textiles without exception. The main aim of this thesis is to create new insight into how are clothing and other textile-related themes are included in the prose of S​ næfellingasögur (​ the sagas of Snæfellsness) by subjecting all references of clothing, textiles, and textile work to an analysis and compiling a database of the material. Furthermore, this thesis explores the literary significance that these references bear and asks whether in turn, could these references contribute to the study of Viking Age or Mediaeval clothing. The ​Snæfellingasögur ​are a subgroup of the Icelandic family sagas ( ​Íslendingasögur​), which constitute the best-known part of Icelandic Mediaeval literature. These sagas are grouped together because they (mainly) take place on the peninsula of Snæfellsnes. Four sagas ( ​Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss, Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa, Eyrbyggja saga, a​ nd Víglundar saga)​ are the main primary sources of this thesis. These texts have received little, if any, attention in previous scholarship on textiles (Roscoe 1992, Zanchi 2007). My interest in these sagas was piqued in 2012 at the 2n​ d meeting of the Old Norse Folklorists Network in Tartu, which focused on the encounter with the otherworld in Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss. F​ or the purposes of this thesis, Professor Daniel Sävborg put forward the idea of expanding the corpus to include all the sagas that take place at Snæfellsnes. A geographical grouping seemed appropriate as the selection spans several eras of transcribing or creating the texts and the selection of particular sagas was not in my hands. The sample set may seem meagre, yet this yielded 272 references, which proved ample for the scope of this thesis. The occurrences are 7 analysed firstly by the item mentioned, then the mentioned materials and colours are covered, followed by an overview of the few references to textile work. Textiles are rarely the subject of classical saga studies or even included in the circle of themes. For example, T​ he Companion to Old Norse Literature and Culture (ed. Rory McTurk, 2005) does not include material culture in its list of topics and the only place textiles are mentioned in the volume is their importance to the Mediaeval Icelandic economy, i.e. the role of women warrants a mention only in the framework of turning raw materials into products that can be exchanged for cash. To provide another example: my pursuit of a trustworthy secondary source for the description of Odin was futile, as neither of two standard works on Old Norse mythology (Lindow 2001, Simek 2006) make any mention of the garments Odin is wearing. Even if researchers have chosen to direct their attention to textiles and sagas (Valtýr Guðmundsson 1892, Falk 1919, Roscoe 1992, Zanchi 2007), they seem to have no, or very little, experience of producing clothing, either modern or reproduction, which also leads to difficulty imagining the realities of cloth production and consumption. While I have no experience reproducing Viking Age or Mediaeval clothing, I do have extensive knowledge and experience producing clothing from the raw fleece onwards, different techniques used making cloth and bands (I have a vocational degree in textile production), as well as the work that goes into keeping a family of five clothed and their clothing mended. The importance and value of practical knowledge in theoretical research has seen a surge in recent decades and should not be underestimated (Larsson 2007: 29-37). The thesis is divided into chapters: the following chapter gives a detailed overview of the methodology (ch. 2), followed by an overview of the individual sagas and their positions in the Old Norse-Icelandic literature (ch. 3). A brief overview of textiles and their production in the Viking Age and the Mediaeval period is given in ch. 4. Analysis of the clothing, textile, and textile references is carried out in ch. 5. The references are first analysed by item, then by material and colour. The findings of ch. 5 are collated with a closing discussion (ch. 6), followed by the conclusion (ch.7). 8 2. ​Methods 2.1. ​What constitutes ‘clothing’, ‘textiles’ and ‘textile work’? “Clothing. Clothes collectively.” “Clothes. 1. Items worn to cover the body.” “Textiles. 1. A type of cloth or woven fabric.” (OED 2018) The focus of this thesis will be the clothing, textiles, and textile work and their occurrences in the prose of ​Snæfellingasögur. However, it is necessary to point out that while someone’s outfit is described, then other items, such as weaponry, have been mentioned: “Steinthór and his men came riding up to the door; it is said that he was wearing a scarlet tunic with the front tucked up under his belt. He had a beautiful shield and a helmet; at his waist he had a splendidly ornamented sword; the hilt shone with white silver, and the grip was bound with silver wire and edged with gold. [...] [´]Steinthór of Eyr is not only a fine-looking warrior; he also spoke very well when he delivered the slave-payment.'” Eyrbyggja saga​ (1999: 347) Here, the splendour that Steinthór is wearing only begins with the red1 tunic. The weapons are even brighter, but as transpires in the subsequent battle, the sword keeps bending - there is a discrepancy between the fabulous appearance and the quality. In the following instance, the word ​búnaðr ​(‘outfit, equipment’) i​ s used; the description encompasses not only clothing and weapons, but also horses and saddles: “When these men from Breiðarfjörður came ashore there was a striking difference between the outfit of Snorri and that of Thorleif Kimbi. Thorleif bought the best horse he could find and had a magnificent coloured saddle; he carried an ornamented sword, a gold-inlaid spear and a richly-gilded, dark-blue shield. All his clothing was of the finest quality; he had spent nearly all his travel money on his apparel. Snorri, on the other hand, wore a black cloak and was riding a good black mare; he had an old trough-shaped saddle, and his weapons had little adornment. Thórodd's equipment became somewhere between those two. Everybody made fun of Snorri because of his outfit; Börk assumed that he had been unlucky with his travel money to have squandered it all.” Eyrbyggja saga​ (1999: 291) For the cohesion and scope of this thesis, I have chosen not to include the weaponry and animals, although they might prove interesting research subjects. The weaponry 1 The relationship between ​rauð ​and ​skarlat w​ ith their modern English counterparts is discussed in 5.2.9. 9 would have posed a practical problem: when is a weapon part of an outfit and when is it a weapon? Given the ubiquity of battle and killings in the sagas, the task of making such a division was deemed of too little value for the current research. Other metal objects and accessories, such as jewelry, armour, staffs and the like are also excluded from this thesis. However, leather and fur items are included, as are shoes, which we would expect to have been made from leather, yet the only shoes in ​Snæfellingasögur are made of iron. Another category explored in the thesis is other textiles not worn on the body, because these often have similar functions to clothing in the narrative: either to demonstrate someone´s wealth, to be exchanged, or simply to be admired by the audience. As is evident from chapter 5.1, the collective nouns k​ læði, búnaðr, and others were used to denote clothing and furnishings alike, which suggests these categories were merged in the mind of the saga authors. The last part of the analysis focuses on textile work. This is also a maker-centred view, because both home textiles and clothing are made largely in the same way (fibre is collected, processed, woven into cloth and then sewn). Textiles in a pre-modern household were always hand- and often locally made, and these included not only all manner of clothing, but bed furnishings, towels, sieves, nets, bags, sails, and much more. 2.2. Analysis methods In order to create a comprehensive analysis of the textile occurences in the sagas, I read and then marked the occurences. These references were compiled into a database, where they were assigned a number and the saga, the chapter, and page numbers (the volumes where each text is taken from are listed in the bibliography section and ch. 3 of this thesis) were noted down. The database entry includes both the original and the translation. The entries were then tagged and divided into categories. A single sentence could be divided into several entries if it contained references to more than one item: 10 No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Item 148 Bj 32 Bjǫrn hafði kyrtil góðan 199 Bjorn had on a fine tunic 212 kyrtill 149 Bj 32 ok var í hosum 199 and was wearing hose, 212 hosa ok vafit silkiræmu um fót and bound around his leg sér, þeiri hann hafði skipt was the silk cross-garter he 150 Bj 32 199 212 reima um við inn helga Ólaf had got in the exchange konung. with the blessed King Olaf. Table 1. Example of database entry. This has been done to ensure that all examples of clothing, textiles, and textile work are included in the analysis and a full picture of the clothing and textiles in the prose of Snæfellingasögur c​ an be compiled. The full database can be seen at Appendix 1. I have analysed the database compiled on the basis of ​Snæfellingasögur ​by organising the references first by item type, then by material and colour, followed by an analysis of textile work references in order to gain further knowledge of the different settings in which textiles are mentioned in the sagas. This could mean whether the items occur in conjunction with any other items, whether they are part of a larger cluster, or whether the item has any identifiable historical or archeological counterparts. This analysis is occasionally supplemented with examples from the sagas of Icelanders available through ​www.sagadb.org​. This is the single database where all the sagas were available to download in complete. However, Sagadb.org does not have Old Norse source texts, but a Modern Icelandic version of the sagas. The list of sagas in the database can be found at Appendix 2. 11 3. S​ næfellingasögur Margaret Clunies Ross (2010: 35-36) lists 140 Old Norse-Icelandic sagas that are known to exist, of which 36 are categorised as The Sagas of Icelanders (Í​ slendingasögur​). The Sagas of Icelanders comprise the most famous and most researched part of mediaeval Icelandic literature. The texts of these Sagas of Icelanders concern themselves with the lives of the Icelanders during the settlement period and the following century (c. 870-1030) (Clunies Ross 2010: 89-90). This thesis concerns itself with four of the Sagas of Icelanders, grouped geographically as The Sagas of Snæfellsness ( ​Snæfellingasögur)​ in Guðni Jónsson’s edition of the Icelandic sagas (Í​ slendinga sögur - Heimskringla.no​). One other saga, the post-reformatory Illuga saga Tagldarbana ( ​Illuga saga Tagldarbana - Wikipedia ​), is included in the aforementioned volume, but has not been subject to a comprehensive analysis because of its late origin, lack of translation, and lack of scholarship on the text. One short story ( ​þáttr​) Æ​ vi Snorra goða (Heimskringla.no) is printed in the Guðni Jónsson’s edition. It does not include any references to textiles or clothing and is out of this thesis. 3.1. ​Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa ( ​The Saga of Bjorn, Champion of the Hitardal People​) was probably written in the first half of the 13th century, although it is set at the beginning of the 11th century. Björn is thought to have been born in 989 and killed in 1024. The manuscripts used for the standard edition are thought to be from the 17th century (AM 551) and 14th and 18th centuries (ÍF III: LXXXVII-XCVII). In addition to the standard edition, a translation by Alison Finlay published in ​The Sagas of Warrior-Poets (2002: 151-222) was used. The saga revolves around the drawnout conflict between two men, Björn and Thord, who are both prolific poets. The prelude says that Björn and Thord had disagreements in adolescence, but the saga is ignited by Björn’s betrothal to Oddný before leaving for Norway. Björn and Thord meet in Norway and on Thord’s insistence, Björn trusts him with the task of passing Oddný a ring - which had been given to Björn by the king - as a confirmation of his betrothal. Thord deceives both Björn and Oddný, and marries 12 Oddný. Meanwhile, Björn has travelled far and wide, won esteem, and heard the news of Oddný and Thord’s marriage. The men meet again in Denmark, where Björn robs Thord. Björn meets Thord in the court of King Ólaf and makes amends for the robbery. Before departing Norway, Björn accidentally exchanges a garter with the king and wears it for the rest of his life. The conflict between the two men becomes gradually worse even though Thord invites Björn to stay for the first winter. There is a frequent exchange of mocking verses and this is expanded to a graffito Björn erects on Thord’s land. The killing of Björn is the height of the conflict. Björn is unfortunately without his trusty sword Maering, and is left to single-handedly defend himself with mane shears against a mob of twenty-four men. His head and his neck-ring are later dragged around the farms. Seeing Björn’s neck-ring causes Oddný to lose her mind and Thord is left to deal with the consequences of his actions. 3.2. ​Eyrbyggja saga Eyrbyggja saga takes place between 884 and 1031 and was probably composed sometime in the first half of the 13th century. The manuscripts are mainly from the 14th century. (ÍF IV 1985:XXXIII-XXXIV, XLV, LVII-LXIV) In addition to the standard edition, a translation by Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards published in ​The Icelandic Sagas ​ (1999: 279-384) was used. The saga starts with a description of the events prior to Thórólf Mostrarskegg’s departure for Iceland. All goes rather well until, in ch. 9, the Kjalleklings announce that “they would not wear out their shoes going to an offshore skerry for their needs” and endless feuding ensues over a few pieces of skin and basic bodily needs. The principal character of the saga is Snorri godi, who exhibits his scheming nature when he returns from abroad in very modest garments, whereas his foster brother Thorleif Kimbi comes back in a magnificent outfit. It is later revealed that Snorri had actually deposited his travel money with his foster father and uses it to establish his own household. The plot is continually held up by revenge and counterrevenge, and closes only after the death of Snorri godi. 13 The saga features several scenes revolving around the supernatural, for example, the conflict between the sorceresses Geirrid and Katla, the several ghosts, most notably of Thórólf Bægifót, who come to haunt the living, berserks, as well as a curious episode of post-traumatic stress, in which Thórarin produces verse after verse about the battle he has just witnessed. The most notable narrative in ​Eyrbyggja saga that revolves around textiles, is the story of Thórgunna. Thórgunna arrives on Iceland from the Hebrides, and is met on the ship by Thuríd, the mistress of the farm at Fródá. Thórgunna shows Thuríd her clothing, but refuses to sell any. Despite this and the terms Thórgunna sets on her coming (she will decide for herself what she will work on and with which items she will cover her upkeep), she is invited to stay. Upon her arrival at the farm, she produces a magnificent set of bedclothes from her chest, which Thuríd offers to buy, once more, and Thórgunna refuses to sell, once more. Thórgunna is said to have woven and made hay with a rake that was made specifically and only for her. One day, an ominous cloud drifts across the sky and there is a shower of blood, which dries quickly without further ado, except from Thórgunna and her rake. Thórgunna dies a few days later. She has made arrangements with the master Thórodd about her belongings: the bed and furnishings are to be burned, Thuríd gets a scarlet cloak for compensation, and the church where she is to be buried according to Christian traditions is to get a gold ring. Despite the fact that she has come to the farm saying she will decide herself what to give Thuríd, and that she has specifically said that nothing good will come from the items afterwards, Thórodd does not burn half of the items because Thuríd convinces him otherwise. What follows is an assortment of ghosts and deaths. Among the first to die is the master himself, Thórodd. Finally, when Thuríd herself gets ill and is taken to bed (although whether or not she is using Thórgunna’s set of textiles is not mentioned), her son Kjartan seeks the advice of Snorri godi. He is accompanied by a priest, they burn Thórgunna’s belongings, summon the dead to a door-court, and the priest sprays holy water around the house, which brings an end to the distress, and Thuríd is saved. 14 3.3. ​Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss (B​ ard’s Saga)​ probably originates from the 14th century and the earliest surviving manuscript, the Pseudo-Vatshyrna, is from the beginning of the 15th century (ÍF XIII: XCVIII-XCIX). In addition to the standard edition (ÍF XIII), Sarah M. Anderson’s translation published in T​ he Complete Sagas of Icelanders ​, vol. 2 (1997: 237-266) is used. The saga recounts the story of Bárd, who is the son of King Dumb - said to have been descended from giants and trolls - in North Norway, but who makes his way to Iceland when Harald Fairhair becomes king (c. 872). Bárd settles in Iceland, but he kills his half-brother Thorkell Raudfeld’s son after the boy has set Bárd’s daughter Helga on an icefloe and she drifts to Greenland. After this, Bárd became ill tempered and decided to retreat from the society. The saga states that he went to live in a cave and is said to have become the size of a troll with strength to match, after which he was regarded as a guardian spirit, thus called Bárd Snæfellsáss. The saga tells of several instances in which Bárd comes to rescue people. The first concerns Ingjald who is lured out to sea by the sorceress Hetta. Another one is of Odd Önundsson who gets lost in thick fog, out of which Bárd emerges and invites him to stay with him. Odd marries Bárd’s daughter Jorunn Helgadottir. In the next episode, Bárd again appears suddenly and stays the winter with Skeggi from Midfjord and has a son with Skeggi’s daughter Thordis. Bárd’s daughter Helga, who has returned to Iceland via Norway, fosters the boy named Gest for twelve years. Gest spends the following winter with his mother and is raised by his father who comes to collect him (in exchange for “a handsome set of women’s clothing” ( ​Bard’s saga ​1977: 253), no less). At the end of ch. 13, Gest becomes the main character of the saga. He eventually makes his way to Norway, where he becomes a part of King Ólaf Tryggvason’s (ruled c. 960 to 1000) court. At Christmas, a startling vision of king Raknar appears and promises to award his treasures to anyone who dares to take them. The king equips Gest with - among other things - forty pairs of iron shoes lined with down, a length of 15 cloth to wrap himself in when entering the burial mound, a candle, and a sword that will bite at the right moment. In the burial mound, Gest promises to adopt Christianity, if he gets out alive. He returns to Norway to the court with the treasures, and is promptly baptised. Bárd appears to Gest in his sleep and presses on his eyes. Gest loses his eyes in horrible pain the next day and dies. 3.4. V​ íglundar saga Víglundar saga ( ​Viglund’s Saga)​ was most probably composed no earlier than the 14th century, but the saga itself takes place in the 10th century. The saga is preserved in two manuscripts, one from the 15th century and the other from the 15th or the 16th century (ÍF XIV: XXIII-XXIV, XXXII). In addition, the translation by Marianne Kalinke published in ​The Sagas of Warrior-Poets ​(2002: 223-268) was used. The first six chapters of the saga cover the story of Thorgrim and Ólof, Viglund’s parents, in Norway, touching on how Ólof was the precious and well-educated daughter of an earl, how Thorgrim was the illegitimate son of another earl, but a man who had gained high esteem in the king’s court, and how they elope to Iceland. Thorgrim and Ólof take a girl called Ketilrid into their custody because her own mother would not teach her any handicrafts. Ketilrid and Viglund fall in love, but Ketilrid’s brothers Jokul and Einar try constantly to disrupt the situation. After some elaborate scheming, Ketilrid is reluctantly married to a Norwegian called Hakon, but he is killed by Viglund shortly thereafter. The battle takes its toll on Viglund and his brother Trausti, so they are forced into hiding for a full year followed by their departure to Norway. Before their departure, the brothers visit Ketilrid and she declares her love for Viglund to her father. Ketilrid is married off to an older man called Thord. Viglund and Trausti end up on Thord’s farm upon their return to Iceland using aliases, but their identities are no secret to Ketilrid. At the same time, Ketilrid conceals her identity with a veil across her face, but she is exposed soon enough. Viglund wants to kill Thord, but is stopped by Trausti. In the final chapter, Thord leaves the farm and returns with many more people, 16 including Thorgrim, Ólof and Ketilrid’s father Holmkel. Ketilrid has prepared everything for the wedding they are about to hold with Thord. However, Thord now reveals that he is in fact Thorgrim’s brother and he has maintained this unconsumated marriage for the sake of Viglund and Ketilrid’s love. Two other love marriages were promptly arranged and all three pairs wedded. 17 4. Textiles and textile production What would have the saga characters have worn? The question is a difficult one to answer for several reasons. Firstly, the period of the saga events, the period of the alleged transcribing and the period in which the preserved manuscripts were created, span several centuries. Secondly, the primary sources give an incomplete picture of clothing and rarely do they reflect upon the everyday clothing, which would have been most common. The complete garments, even if found, do not form a complete costume. Thirdly, the Mediaeval Icelandic literature is often used as a secondary source when Viking Age or Mediaeval clothing is studied, which can lead to tautological conclusions. All textile production was done by hand - even if it was made by professionals and/or made somewhere else -, which in turn meant that an item’s worth was in direct relation to the cost of production, a notion that is easy for the modern researcher to forget. A finer fabric has more threads per centimetre, which means there are more metres of thread per unit of fabric, and spinning the thread took considerable time. Weaving a finer fabric would also have taken longer because of the set-up, as well as because of the number of picks (passes of the weft thread). For a rough comparison: archaeological finds in Iceland, which we can take to be vaðmál ​(woollen cloth produced at home), typically have 8-12 warp threads and 4-10 weft threads per centimetre (Hayeur Smith 2015: 33), while the finds from Viking Age Birka include fragments of wool cloth with 28-60 warp threads and 12-17 weft threads per centimetre (Geijer 1983: 82). In other words, between 2.8 and 6 threads per millimetre, which would make a very fine fabric. A square metre of ​vaðmál would use approximately 1800 metres of yarn, whereas a reconstruction of the Birka fabrics would use between 4200 and 7700 metres of yarn. A finer yarn needs more twist than a coarser yarn, which adds to to the spinning time. As stated earlier, the fabric itself would take longer weave as well. The spinning was done using a spindle, but before this could commence the raw material needed to be raised (flax) or reared (wool, silk), and processed (retted and 18 hackled for flax; shorn or plucked, sorted, scoured, and combed for wool). If the material was dyed, the dye material needed to be collected or grown, the fibre needed to be mordanted in most cases and only then could be dyed. After the weaving, most fabrics would have undergone at least some finishing, such as fulling and shearing, before being cut and subsequently sewn. The garment could then have been further embellished or left as it was. Contrary to the modern situation, most people knew exactly where, how, and by whom their garments and other associated textiles were created. Owning or receiving items that were of exotic origin was the utmost luxury, as opposed to the current market where the bulk of textiles are produced in Asia, and making your own clothes to whatever extent (or having them made locally from locally sourced materials) is considered a luxury. Another modern trend is zero waste garment making, which in fact was the default method of pattern cutting in premodern times as cloth was expensive (Pritchard 2003: 372). In the same vein, using larger amounts of cloth for a garment or having a multitude of (or any) garments to choose from was a display of status. The same goes for other textiles - bedclothes are not essential for survival and are another display of the wealth of a household. Wealth and status played a far more significant role in determining the nature of textiles than geography (Ewing 2006: 11). Bender Jørgensen (2003: 138) states that almost all knowledge of Viking Age costume relies on the findings from Birka and Hedeby. Both were trading centres, but in Birka rich graves with precious textiles were studied and in Hedeby a harbour area where rags of clothing that had been used for tarring and caulking were excavated. According to the Birka finds, a wealthy Viking Age woman would have worn “a pleated linen shift, a pinafore dress held by tortoise brooches, a kaftan jacket, and a shawl” (Bender Jørgensen 2003: 138). This would amount to three layers of wool and one layer of linen, but more layers would certainly have been added according to weather conditions. The description does not mention any kind of leg coverings, yet these would have been indispensable. 19 The male costume was more elaborate, if means permitted (Larsson 2008: 182). The men wore breeches, hose, garters, shirts, tunics, and cloaks (Ewing 2006: 71-130). 20 5. Analysis The four ​Snæfellingasögur contain 272 references to clothing, textiles, and textile work in total. These references have contributed 91 terms to the analysis, which on the one hand shows how specialized clothing terminology was; on the other hand, this does not allow any solid generalisations to be made, as each term has so few occurrences. Number of Number of words Number of Percentage of Saga words in the divided by number of references 2 references saga references Bjarnar saga 51 20552 0.25% 403 Eyrbyggja saga 117 39630 0.30% 339 Bárðar saga 62 13381 0.46% 216 Víglundar saga 42 12662 0.34% 301 Total 272 Table 2. References to clothing, textiles, and textile work ​ ​in ​Snæfellingasögur​. The table above shows the distribution of usable references in each saga and the proportion of references to the saga’s word count. The table shows that the number of references is the highest in B​ árðar saga (one reference per 216 words on average) and the lowest in ​Bjarnar saga ​ (one reference per 403 words on average). Label in Number of Percentage of Character database occurrences occurrences Male M 168 62% Female F 83 30% Male and female T 16 6% Cross-dressing CD 3 1% Unspecified N/A 2 1% Total 272 Table 3. The gender of characters associated with references to clothing, textiles, and textile work ​ ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. Table 3 above shows that most items and textile-related activity mentioned in Snæfellingasögur are related to men (62%). A little over half of the references that occur in relation to women (42 of 83) are in fact from the story of Thórgunna ​in Eyrbyggja saga ​. Which means that in general, if a textile or related work is mentioned, then it is, in all likelihood in conjunction with a male character. Furthermore, of the 24 different garments and accessories mentioned, 15 belong to 2 Counted from the sagadb.org Modern Icelandic version 21 male characters, 6 are associated with female characters, and 3 are worn by both sexes. The male items constitute virtually the whole set of clothing: a shirt, a tunic, breeches, hose and several types of overgarment. The ordinary women are presented with the following items: a shirt, a veil, and a mantle. Sorceresses wear several types of headpiece and a cloak, plus a man is described as wearing a linen headpiece. This tendency to focus on male items or actions is exemplified in the case of women’s rooms (see 5.7), which are most often mentioned when men are present in the scene; no mention of purposeful work typically carried out there is made. 5.1. General references to outfit and textiles 5.1.1. ​Klæði ​and ​klæða The most common word to describe clothing and other textiles in general in Snæfellingasögur is ​klæði. The usage, however, is divided between two meanings: garment (31 instances) and stuff or cloth (5 instances). The nature of ​klæði ​cannot be inferred from the context on two occasions. Examples of ​klæði in the sense of ‘garment, clothing’ are divided into subcategories, which overlap at times, but are introduced in order to make the analysis easier to follow. No Saga Ch Old Norse Page English Page 65 Vgl 5 á klæði Gríms. 69 on Grim's raiment 230 108 Bj 7 einn yztan klæða. 128 on over his clothes. 164 Ok Bjǫrn gekk til klæða sinna And when Bjorn went to his 116 Bj 9 134 168 fyrr en aðrir menn, clothes before other people, 118 Bj 9 hjá klæðum konungs, 134 beside the king's clothes, 168 134 Bj 19 at klæðum. 166 clothed. 189 154 Bj 33 ok var niðr lagðr með klæðum 207 He was buried with his clothes 217 and now his clothes began to 198 Erb 40 tók þá at frysta honum klæðin, 110 340 freeze. They took the oars and þeir tóku bæði árar ok þiljur ór benches out of the boat and 209 Erb 45 skipinu ok lǫgðu þar eptir á 126 350 left them on the ice with their ísinum, ok svá klæði sín clothing Then they started back for siðan gengu þeir eptir klæðum 210 Erb 45 126 their clothing 350 sínum 22 tóku þeir Steinþórr þá ferð they began running very fast 211 Erb 45 mikla út eptir firðinum til klæða 126 across the fjord to get to their 350 sínna clothing at þér hafið klæði svá þrǫng, at Your clothes are so tight-fitting 217 Erb 45 129 353 eigi verðr af yðr komit." that they will not come off.' ok lagði af sér klæðin þau hin she took off her blood-soaked 245 Erb 51 140 359 blóðgu; clothing þeir skóku klæðin ok hreyttu They shook it out of their 265 Erb 54 149 363 moldinni á þá Þórodd clothing Álfr litli hafði legit í klæðum 270 Erb 60 164 fully dressed 373 sínum; gekk Glæsir at honum ok Glæsir went over to him and 272 Erb 63 daunsnaði um hann ok sleikði 172 sniffed at him and licked his 378 um klæði hans, clothing, Table 4. ​Klæði ​ in the sense of ‘clothes´ in ​Snæfellingasögur​. Out of the 31 instances in which the word k​ læði h​ as been used to denote clothing, 15 are used to refer to clothing as such with no further elaboration. No Saga Ch Old Norse Page English Page Váru þá dregin af Oddi 48 Brð 10 135 Odd's clothes were pulled off 250 vosklæði ǫ There were no fires made there Eigi varu þar eldar g rvir né and no change of clothes was 139 Bj 27 skipt um klæði, ok váru þeir 184 201 offered, although they were vatnir ok frørnir. wet and frozen. Then Bjorn had great fires Siðan lét Bjǫrn gera elda mikla made, and told Thorstein to 144 Bj 27 ok bað Þorstein baka sik ok 186 203 toast himself and dry his þurrka klæði sín. clothes. then they went into the main gengu síðan til stofu ok fóru af room and took off their clothes, 260 Erb 51 klæðum sínum ok ætluðu at 143 360 intending to spend the night vera þar um nótt matlausir, there without food. A lamp was now lit in the Eptir þetta var gǫrt ljós í stófu living-room, and the visitors ok dregin af gestum klæði þau, 361 262 Erb 51 ǫ 144 were helped out of their wet er vát váru, en fengin nnur clothes and given dry ones þurr í staðinn. instead. Snorri bað hann þar vera um Snorri asked him to stay the 271 Erb 61 nóttina í náðum; váru þá tekin 166 night and rest, and he was 374 klæði Þrándar. helped out of his clothes. Table 5. ​Klæði ​ as part of hospitality in S​ næfellingasögur.​ In 6 instances, clothes in general are mentioned as part of hospitality. In the cases of Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 61 and ​Bárðar saga ​, ch. 10, the host is acting as is expected of him, 23 whereas in ​Bjarnar saga,​ ch. 27 and ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 51, the guests are treated poorly at the outset, although the host changes his behaviour because either the guests decide to stay ( ​Bjarnar saga)​ or a stark naked ghost caters for the men who are transporting her body ( ​Eyrbyggja saga​). A significant part of hospitality seems to have been helping people out of their clothes as well as offering them dry ones. Helping the master and his wife to undress is also mentioned below in ​Bjarnar saga,​ ch. 14; apparently the servant doing that was kept close at hand. No Saga Ch Old Norse Page English Page þar fór hann ór klæðum sínum He took off all of his clothes and 11 Brð 4 112 241 öllum bathed in the shallows. Vildi hann upp í sængina ok wanted to get into bed and 32 Brð 7 undir klæðin hjá henni, en 124 under her clothes, but she 246 hon vildi þat eigi. would have none of it. Siðan lét Bjǫrn Þórð ok ǫ Then Bjorn made Thord and all f runeyti hans allt fara á his companions get into the 109 Bj 7 knarrarbátinn með klæðum 130 165 knorr's boat with their clothes, sínum ok flytja svá til and so cross to the mainland. meginlands. ok lǫgðu menn klæði sín á and everyone left his clothes on 111 Bj 9 ǫ 133 168 v llinn, the ground; ǫ During the winter, Thord, Oddny ll hvíldu þau í einu útibúri um and the serving-woman who vetrinn, Þórðr ok Oddný ok 129 Bj 14 149 helped them off with their 178 verkkona, er togaði af þeim clothes all slept in a separate klæði. apartment. Þá var hann borinn inn ok He was carried inside and 168 Erb 16 29 295 dregin af honum klæði; undressed; Table 6. ​Klæði ​in undressing and nudity in ​Snæfellingasögur​. Nudity is not talked about directly in ​Snæfellingasögur ​, yet it is implied most often with the removal of clothes. Out of the six instances listed here, two mention the voluntary removal of clothes in order to bathe (​Bárðar saga ​, ch. 4 and ​Bjarnar saga ​, ch. 9). In B​ árðar saga,​ ch. 7, the Norwegian Hrafn intends to rape Helga, but this is mentioned in a roundabout way, being indirect in both his intentions and her body. Hrafn, however, is left with a broken arm and a broken leg because “she would have none of it” ( ​Bard’s saga 1​ 997: 246). 24 In ​Bjarnar saga,​ ch. 7, Björn ambushes his enemy Thord, robs him of his ship (the knorr) and all the valuables in addition to making Thord’s situation “as humiliating as possible” (T​ he Saga of Bjorn 2002: 165). Whether this meant stripping them of their clothes, as might be inferred from the fact that the men are in the boat with their clothes (“ ​með klæðum sínum” ​, Í​ F III: 130), not í​ klæðum sínum,​ which is the standard usage; or perhaps the situation is humiliating because they are stripped of their valuables ( ​gripi ​), although this remains uncertain. No Saga Ch Old Norse Page English Page vǫnduð ǫll klæði; hann hafði All his clothing was of the finest 160 Erb 13 þar ok til vart mjǫk ǫllum 23 quality; he had spent nearly all his 291 sínum fararefnum; travel money on his apparel. 181 Erb 20 ok einn í lítklæðum. 53 one of them in coloured clothing. 307 ok riðu þeir til All the merchants rode to it 197 Erb 40 kaupmennirnir allir í 107 339 dressed in coloured clothing. lítklæðum. As they came past the mountain en er þeir kómu inn fyrir ǫ at Öxl they caught sight of xlina, sá þeir, at maðr var í 343 199 Erb 42 114 someone in coloured clothing on skrúðklæðum á húsunum top of the farmhouse roof at uppi á Bakka; Bakki; Table 7. ​Klæði ​as precious clothing in ​Snæfellingasögur​. There are four instances of k​ læði in which the preciousness of the outfit is expressed, all in E​ yrbyggja saga.​ The single example of the phrase ​vǫnduð ǫll klæði is in E​ yrbyggja saga ​, ch. 13. Thorleif Kimbi’s outfit is fancy and is much appreciated. However, the phrase itself might be better rendered as ‘elaborately embellished’ (CV 1874: 677). The term ​lítklæði is well established in saga literature (Valtýr Guðmundsson 1892), whereas the term only occurs twice in S​ næfellingasögur ​. Both instances are in Eyrbyggja saga ​. In ch. 20, Geirrid is wearing a b​ lá skikkja when she meets Arnkel and his men who have been to Holt three times in vain in their search for Odd Kötluson. Someone tells Katla that “there were now fourteen in all, one of them in coloured clothing”. Katla immediately recognises this to be Geirrid. (​Eyrbyggja saga ​1999: 307) The merchants, who are said to ride to the assembly in l​ ítklæði include Thorleif Kimbi, who is known for his love of elaborate clothing since ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 13 (discussed in 2.1 and previously in this chapter) and the brothers Arnbjörn and Björn. While 25 Arnbjörn is said to be no dandy ( ​engi áburðarmaðr​), he is still said to have come to the assembly in l​ ítklæði ​. His brother on the other hand is said to be á​ burðarmaðr mikill and “when he came back to Iceland he would dress in finery after the fashion of people of distinction abroad”. (ÍF IV 1985: 106-107; ​Eyrbyggja saga 1​ 999: 338-339) The fact that coloured clothing is rare enough to warrant someone’s identification, indicates it was rather uncommon. This is supported by the usage of ​skrúðklæði ​, which further confirms that appearing in l​ ítklæði was well within the means of Arnbjörn, whose fortune is based on the three hundred ells of v​ aðmál a​ nd twelve v​ ararfeldir ​, which he took with him on his voyage (see 5.5.2 for further discussion on his baggage). The compound s​ krúðklæði appears only once in ​Snæfellingasögur ​, in E​ yrbyggja saga, ch. 42, when Björn and his company see someone on the roof of Arnbjörns house in skrúðklæði ​. It is said that they immediately set off in that direction because “they knew it was not Arnbjörn’s style of dress”. Skrúðklæði i​ s translated as ‘coloured clothing’ (E​ yrbyggja saga 1​ 999: 343), yet CV (1874: 559) gives this as “a suit of fine stuff”, i.e. precious cloth. No Saga Ch Old Norse Page English Page Furthermore, we have never höfum vit ok aldri undir slept together between the 103 Vgl 23 115 266 einum klæðum legit, sheets because a bed-board separated us, þó at vit höfum haft eitt even though we shared one 266 104 Vgl 23 115 áklæði coverlet. Thórarin's wife Auð called on Auðr húsfreyja hét á konur at the women to separate them 170 Erb 18 skilja þá, ok kǫstuðu þær 36 298 and they threw clothes on the klæðum á vápn þeira. weapons. After that he wrapped some siðan sveipaði hann klæðum clothes around Thórólf's head 188 Erb 33 at hǫfði Þórólfi ok bjó um 92 and prepared him for burial 330 hann eptir siðvenju. according to the custom of the time. Þá lauk hon upp ǫrkina ok tók She then opened the large chest 236 Erb 50 þar upp ór rekkjuklæði, ok 138 and took from it a set of 357 váru þau ǫll mjǫk vǫnduð; beautifully-made bedclothes. Um daginn eptir lét Þóroddr Next day he had the bera út rekkjuklæðin í veðr bed-clothes taken outside; he 250 Erb 51 142 360 ok fœrði til viðu ok lét hlaða collected wood and built a þar bál hjá. bonfire. 26 Þá gjekk at Þuríðr húsfreyja Then his wife Thuríð came and ok sputt, hvat hann ætlar at asked what he was doing with gera af rekkjuklæðunum. Han 251 Erb 51 142 the bed-clothes; he said he was 360 kvezk ætla at brenna þau í going to burn them, as eldi, sem Þórgunna hafði fyrir Thórgunna had asked. mælt. Table 8. ​Klæði ​ in the sense of ‘stuff’, ‘cloth’ in ​Snæfellingasögur.​ The seven instances where k​ læði is used in the sense of ‘stuff’, ‘cloth’ in Snæfellingasögur are divided between ​Eyrbyggja saga and ​Víglundar saga and three episodes in total. In two cases, the nature of ​klæði i​ s not clear, but I would interpret it as cloth, not clothes, as the translators have. In ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 33, Arnkel gets behind his dead father’s back and wraps his head in some cloth, although this is translated as ‘some clothes’ ( ​Eyrbyggja saga 1999: 330) in order to veil his gaze. Despite this, Thórólf soon starts to haunt the farm, although there are no textiles involved as there are in Thórgunna’s case. In ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 18, Auð calls on the other women to throw cloth(es) on the men’s weapons and thereby hinder further bloodshed. As in the case of Arnkel and Thórólf, ​klæði is translated as ‘clothes’, even though the context does not reveal the nature of the item. It is rather peculiar that the other instance of k​ læði also lead to haunting. In ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, chs. 50 and 51, Thórgunna arrives at Fródá and produces some magnificent textiles from her chest. Before her death, she asks Thórodd to burn her bed along with the furnishings. However, the mistress of the house, Thuríd, convinces her husband otherwise, leading to the deaths of many. In ​Víglundar saga,​ ch. 23, the k​ læði have an entirely benign and practical meaning that still relates to bed furnishings. When Ketilrid’s elderly husband Thord reveals to Viglund that their marriage has been unconsumated and has all been a part of a cunning plan to keep Ketilrid for Viglund, he attests to their virtue by saying that they have never “lain under one cloth” (my translation), although they have shared an áklæði ​(literally “a cover sheet”, my translation; ÍF XIV: 115). 27 No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page He was fittingly attired, since Hann var sæmiliga klæddr, því at the king bestowed much konungr lagði mikla virðing á honour on him, but many of 66 Vgl 5 hann, ok þótti þat mörgum hans 70 the king's men thought this 230 mönnum við of ok lögðu mikla excessive, and for this reason þykkju á Þorgrím þar fyrir. they disliked Thorgrim intensely. Stendr hon þá upp skjótt ok She stood up quickly, got 73 Vgl 8 77 236 klæðir sikk dressed, Í þessu kom maðr í stofuna At this moment a man dressed 77 Vgl 8 bláklæddr ok helt á brugðnu 78 in black walked into the room; 237 sverði. he was holding a drawn sword. en inn bláklæddi maðr var Ólof the man in black was Olof 78 Vgl 8 78 236 sjálf. herself. ok varð Birni eirgi at huggat, furr and Bjorn did not realize until 119 Bj 9 134 168 en menn váru klæddir, everyone was dressed 187 Erb 30 Þrælarnir klæddusk 82 The slaves got dressed 30 Snorri stóð upp ok bað menn Snorri got up and told his men 189 Erb 37 100 335 klæðask. to put their clothes on. 190 Erb 37 Ok er þeir váru klæddir 100 When they were dressed, 335 Þá hljópu menn upp ok The men leaped up and got 192 Erb 37 103 336 klæddusk dressed Table 9. ​Klæða i​ n ​Snæfellingasögur. Of the nine instances where getting dressed ( ​klæða)​ is mentioned in ​Snæfellingasögur ​, only two of the five episodes are non-violent. In ​Bjarnar saga ​, ch. 9 this relates to the scene in which Björn and the king exchange garters (further discussed in 5.3.4), and in Víglundar saga, ​ch. 5, it is said of Throgrim that “he was fittingly attired”. However, the episodes in ​Eyrbyggja saga, c​ h. 37 and V​ íglundar saga,​ ch. 8, use getting dressed to heighten the sense of imminence and danger. In V​ íglundar saga,​ Ólof needs to act promptly when the brothers Einar and Jökul try to catch her alone at home with the intention of raping her. The same goes for Snorri, who calls his men into action in ​Eyrbyggja saga to attack Arnkel. The three mentions of dressing and getting dressed, in addition to Arnkel’s slaves, who are said to have f​ óru af skinnstǫkkum sínum (#191), form a rather peculiar cluster of events. Whether such clusters are to be found elsewhere in Mediaeval 28 Icelandic literature, would be highly interesting to know. 5.1.2. ​Búa No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item 42 Brð 9 Var hann svá optast búinn, 129 He was usually clad 248 búa he saw Raknar, magnificently 59 Brð 20 ok var hann fagrbúinn; 165 263 búa dressed. When they came to the En er þeir kvámu á þingit, assembly, they were so well váru þeir svá vel búnir, at 62 Brð 22 171 turned out that men thought 266 búa menn hugðu þar væri the gods themselves had komnir æsir. arrived. 133 Bj 19 en var sjálfr léttbúinn 166 but he was lightly [clothed] 189 búa When these men from En er þeir bjuggursk frá Breiðarfjörður came ashore skipi, Breiðfirðingarnir, þá there was a striking 159 Erb 13 skauzk þar mjǫk í tvau horn 22 291 búnaðr difference between the um búnað þeira Snorra ok outfit of Snorri and that of Þorleifs kimba. Thorleif Kimbi. Thórodd's equipment búnaðr Þórodds var þar á 162 Erb 13 23 became somewhere 291 búnaðr milli. between those two. ǫ ǫ Everybody made fun of ok h fðu menn þat mj k at Snorri because of his outfit; hlátri um búnað hans; tók ǫ Börk assumed that he had 163 Erb 13 B rkr svá á, at honum hefði 23 291 búnaðr been unlucky with his travel óheppoliga með fét farizk, ǫ money to have squandered it er llu var eitt. all. Hon hafði tekit sinn bezta She had put on her finest 186 Erb 28 73 319 búnaðr búnað; clothes. en þeir vissu, at þat var eigi they knew it was not 200 Erb 42 114 343 búnaðr búnaðr Arnbjarnar; Arnbjörns style of dress, fór hon þá til skips ok fann She went to the ship to see Þórgunnu ok spurði, ef hon Thórgunna and asked if she 226 Erb 50 137 357 búnaðr hefði kvenbúnað nǫkkurn, had any women's attire of þann er afbragðligr væri. special quality. Then Thuríð, the mistress of Þá mælti Þuríðr húsfreyja: the house, asked, 'How much "Met þú við mik would you like to take for the rekkjubúnaðinn." Þórgunna bed-clothes?' Thórgunna 242 Erb 50 139 357 búnaðr svarar: "Eigi mun ek liggja í replied, 'I am not going to lie hálmi fyrir þik, þó at þú sér on straw for your sake, no kurteis ok berisk á mikit." matter how refined and lady-like you are.' Siðan lagði hon hendr yfir Thuríð put her arms around 253 Erb 51 143 360 búnaðr háls honum ok bað, at his neck and begged him not 29 hann skyldi eigi brenna to burn the bed-furnishings. rekkjubúnaðin; var þá brenndr allr then all the bed-furnishings 268 Erb 55 rekkjubúnaðinn, er 151 which had belonged to 365 búnaðr Þórgunna hafði átt. Thórgunna were burned. Bard had brought Thordis a Fært hafði Bárðr Þórdísi 51 Brð 12 142 handsome set of women's 253 búningr vænan kvenmannsbúning. clothing. They were such fine þat var svá góðr búningr, at bed-furnishings that people 241 Erb 50 menn þóttusk eigi slíkan 138 357 búningr reckoned they had never sét hafa þess kyns. seen the like before. Table 10. ​Búa ​, ​búnaðr ​ and b​ úningr​ in ​Snæfellingasögur. The verb ​búa has a variety of meanings in Old Norse, one of which is ‘to dress, equip’ (CV 1874: 86-87). The terms b​ únaðr a​ nd b​ úningr​, that is ‘dress’, ‘clothing’, ‘equipment’ are cognates of ​búa ​(CV 1874: 89). Whereas the examples of ​klæði ​include several references to more modest clothing, the​ búnaðr ​ and ​búningr ​ evoke a sense of finery. Of the 15 references, only twice do we not hear of the finery of the outfit: firstly, when the habitual dress of Bárd is described in ​Bárðar saga,​ ch. 9 (which consists of a undyed ​kufl and a walrus hide rope); secondly in B​ jarnar saga ​, ch. 19 (where the inappropriate attire of Thorstein is described: “Thorstein had a wood-axe, a sharp one on a long shaft, in his hand, but he was lightly clothed” ( ​The Saga of Bjorn 2002: 189). It is clear from the description that the l​ éttbúinn at klæðum does not fit the tools he is carrying and he is not clad appropriately for the task he has supposedly set out to do. The most spectacular perhaps are the sons of Thorbjörn, who, having returned from their travels in B​ árðar saga,​ ch. 22, arrive at the assembly s​ vá vel búnir, at menn hugðu þar væri komnir æsir (​ #62) ​. The unparalleled quality of textiles is referred to in Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 50, where Thórgunna produces from her chest first ​rekkjuklæði ok váru þau ǫll mjǫk vǫnduð ​, but after the silk quilt and English sheets make their appearance, the set is referred to as ​búningr. In E​ yrbyggja saga,​ ch. 28, the best set of clothes Styr’s daughter Ásdis has, is also referred to as b​ únaðr.​ She wears them when the berserk she loves, builds a wall and a sheep pen in exchange for her betrothal. Ásdis, who is said to be self-willed, sports her best clothing in anticipation of being united with the man she loves, but instead the 30 two berserks are treacherously killed by Styr. Although the outfit (b​ unaðr)​ of Snorri godi is mocked in E​ yrbyggja saga,​ ch. 13 for being too lowly, I would argue that there is nothing shabby about it. Snorri’s outfit is said to be far less ostentatious than Thorleif’s when they come back to Iceland, but he is said to have ridden a good black mare, and nothing bad is said about the quality of the weapons, just that they had little adornment. The ​kápa ​Snorri is wearing is in itself an appropriate garment, as men are later portrayed at assemblies in k​ ápa a​ nd Snorri sports a ​kápa i​ n later episodes, although it is said to have been dyed then (for further discussion on ​kápa​, see 5.2.1). One curious example of b​ úa ​is in B​ árðar saga ​, ch. 20, where the mythical Raknar appears to the priest in magnificent clothing (f​ agrbúinn​), although there is no mention of him having on any textiles, only weaponry and armour, in the other scenes. 5.1.3. ​Fǫt No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page 117 Bj 9 ok váru fǫt Bjarnar 134 his garments were 168 She climbed up over the side of en hon sté upp yfir stokkinn ok the bed and tried to get under vildi undir fǫtin hjá honum, ok 130 Bj 14 149 the covers beside him, but this 178 var þess eigi kostr, ok sat hon was not possible, and so she af því upp. stayed sitting up. engi váru þeim ok boðin þurr Nor were they offered any dry 142 Bj 27 ǫ 185 202 f t. clothes. Table 11. ​Fǫt ​ in ​Snæfellingasögur​. All three instances of ​fǫt ​in ​Snæfellingasögur occur in ​Bjarnar saga.​ CV (1874: 145) translate ​fǫt ​as ​clothes ​, ​dress.​ Yet in one (ch. 14) of the three instances, ​fǫt ​refers to a coverlet not a garment. In ch. 9, it is evident that ​fǫt ​and ​klæði ​are used interchangeably: “ok lǫgðu menn klæði sín á vǫllinn, [...] Ok er Bjǫrn gekk til klæða sinna fyrr en aðrir menn, ok varu fǫt Bjarnar hjá klæðum konungs,” (ÍF III: 133-134) The same goes for ch. 27, were the clothes of Thorstein and his companions are referred to as both ​klæði​ and ​fǫt​ (ÍF III: 184-185). 31 5.1.4. ​Gersemi Gersemi ​means ‘costly things’, ‘jewels’ (CV 1874: 226) and occurs only in E​ yrbyggja saga ​. There are two instances, whereas only once is it used to refer to textiles, specifically Thórgunna’s bedclothes. No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page I do not want,' she said, 'to see "Þat vil ek eigi," segir hon, "at 252 Erb 51 142 such valuable things being 360 þvílíkar gersemar sé brenndar." burned.' Table 12. ​Gersemi ​ referring to textiles in S​ næfellingasögur​. The other instance of ​gersemi is in ch. 31, where a piece of land (with some woods, no less), is referred to as “the most valuable in the district” (E​ yrbyggja saga ​1999: 326; e​ r mest gersemi er hér í sveit​ (ÍF IV: 85)). 5.1.5. ​Gripi The term ​gripi ​is used 34 times in total in ​Snæfellingasögur,​ but as the term means ‘costly things’, ‘pretiosa’ (CV 1874: 215), it is most often used to denote valuables other than textiles. On 16 instances, the term refers to metal objects such as weapons and rings, on 2 occasions, the term refers to animals (g​ angandi gripi (ÍF III: 139), literally ‘walking treasures’), and 6 times the nature of the objects is unknown. It is reasonable to infer that these too were not textiles as the only 10 examples of g​ ripi referring to textiles are found in ​Eyrbyggja saga, ​chs. 50 and 51, strictly in relation to the belongings of Thórgunna. No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Þar var á ein kona suðreysk, er Þórgunna hét; þat sǫgdu hennar she had brought some 223 Erb 50 skipmenn, at hon myndi hafa gripi 137 finery with her which was 357 þá með at fara, at slíkir myndi difficult to obtain in Iceland. torugætir á Íslandi. En er Þuríðr húsfreyja at Fróðá spyrr she was very curious to see 224 Erb 50 þetta, var henni mikil forvitni á at 137 357 this finery, sjá gripina, Thórgunna said she had 227 Erb 50 Hon kvezk enga gripi eiga til sǫlu, 137 nothing for sale, 357 32 but claimed she had enough en hafa lézk hon gripi, svá at hon fine things to prevent her 228 Erb 50 væri óneist at boðum eða ǫðrum 138 357 feeling ashamed at feasts mannfundum. and other gatherings. Thurið asked to see her Þuríðr beiddisk at sjá gripina, ok þat 229 Erb 50 138 things, and Thórgunna 357 veitti hon henni, showed them; ok sýndusk henni vel gripirnir ok Thurið thought them 230 Erb 50 138 357 sem bezt farandi, attractive and well-made, Thurið made an offer for Þuríðr falaði gripina, en Þórgunna 232 Erb 50 138 them, but Thórgunna would 357 vildi eigi selja. not sell. ok hugðisk hon mundu fá gripina af and she hoped to get some 234 Erb 50 138 357 henni í tómi. clothes from her by and by. Thuríð was displeased about this, and made no Þetta mislíkar Þuríði, ok falar eigi 243 Erb 50 139 further offers to buy 358 optar gripina. Thórgunna's finery from her. ok mæli ek þetta eigi fyrir því, at ek unna engum at njóta gripanna, ef ek vissa, at nyt mætti at verða , en nú I am not saying this because mæli ek því svá mikit um," segir I begrudge anyone enjoying 249 Erb 51 142 359 hon, "at mér þykkir illt, at menn all this finery if I thought it hljóti svá mikil þyngsl af mér, sem would do them any good; ek veit at verða mun, ef af er brugðit því, sem ek segi fyrir." Table 13. ​Gripi ​ referring to textiles in S​ næfellingasögur.​ 5.1.6. ​Fé Fé has a plethora of meanings, the first of which is ‘livestock’, ‘sheep’; the second meaning is ‘property’, ‘money’. (CV 1874: 147-149) No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page "sem þat muni kona vera, sem 'that the one with the headgear 86 Vgl 14 89 245 faldinn hefir." must be the woman.' 231 Erb 50 en eigi fémiklir. 138 and not very costly. 357 vil ek sjálf ráða, hvat ek skal I shall decide myself how much I 235 Erb 50 gefa fyrir 138 pay you from my keep from the 357 mik af því fé, sem ek hefi." money I have.' geri ek þat til þess, at hon skuli I do this so that she will not take 247 Erb 51 létta á leggja, þótt ek sjá fyrir 142 it amiss if I dispose of the rest of 359 ǫðru mínu fé, slíkt er mér likar; my things as I see fit; Table 14. ​Fé​ referring to textiles in ​Snæfellingasögur​. 33 However, in the three instances that occur in ​Snæfellingasögur,​ it is not money but valuable textiles that are mentioned using this word. As was the case with ​gripi ​and gersemi ​, the word is used in conjunction with Thórgunna’s belongings. Furthermore, the English translation uses the more direct word ‘money’, when Thórgunna and Thurid agree on the terms of Thórgunna’s stay, yet the sequence of events (see 3.2) makes much more sense if the word used is ‘property’ or ‘belongings’. 5.1.7. ​Dúk ​and other references to clothing and textiles in general No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page He gave to him a length of cloth dúk gaf hann honum ok bað and asked him to wrap it 55 Brð 18 hann vefja honum um sik, áðr 162 262 around himself before entering en hann gengi í hauginn. the grave mound. Gest had wrapped himself with Vafit hafði Gestr sik með 60 Brð 20 166 the cloth that the king had 264 dúkinum konungsnaut, presented to him Líkit var sveipat líndúkum, en The corpse was wrapped in a 259 Erb 51 saumat eigi um, ok síðan lagt í 143 linen shroud, but not sewed 360 kistu; into it, and then coffined. Table 15. D​ úk ​in ​Snæfellingasögur​. No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item var hann fluttr í fjórum he was carried home on a í fjórum 87 Vgl 14 89 246 skautum heim makeshift litter. skautum As those were his 7 Brð 3 ok hafði þat fyrir reifa, 108 240 reifa swaddling clothes, Siðan andaðist Gestr í Afterwards Gest died, still 61 Brð 21 170 váðir hvítavaðum. in his baptismal clothes. var þar sén kona mikil; hon they saw a tall woman var nǫkvið, svá at hon hafði there, she was stark naked, 261 Erb 51 144 361 hlut engan hlut á sér; hon without a stitch on, and she starfaði at matseld; was preparing a meal. They sat down by the fire settusk þeir niðr við eldinn tóku at 264 Erb 54 149 and began wringing the 363 ok tóku at vinda sik; vinda sik water from their clothing. Table 16. Other references to textiles in ​Snæfellingasögur. There are six occurrences in S​ næfellingasögur where the clothing has been referred to using a unique phrase. One of them, g​ ersemi,​ has been discussed above in 5.1.4. There are also three instances where ​dúk ​(‘cloth’) is mentioned. 34 Three of the unique phrases and all three instances of ​dúk are connected to Christianity: ​hafa,​ in the sense of ‘wear’, which is used when talking about the uncorruptable garter Björn exchanges with King Ólafin B​ jarnar saga,​ ch. 9. The phrase is used to explain the nature of the garter to the audience. Another, perhaps more direct connection is when describing the nakedness of Thórgunna’s ghost in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ ch. 51. Despite having ample clothing, Thórgunna was wrapped in a shroud as per the Christian tradition (Jesch 2005: 10-11). However, the saga states that she was not sewn into the cloth. Could this perhaps mean the story also serves as a warning that ghosts can start to go around if left only wrapped in a shroud? In the evening, when the coffin bearers are left with poor hospitality, Thórgunna, who has ​engan hlut á sér (literally ‘not a thing on her’), prepares food for the men. It also seems that wrapping a body in the shroud was unusual, as Thórólf Bægifót’s body is prepared for burial “according to the custom of the time” ( ​Eyrbyggja saga ​1999: 330) and it is not elaborated on. In ​Bárðar saga ​, ch. 18, Gest has returned from his trip to the mound of King Raknar, and has been baptised, as he had promised in the mound. That same night, Bárd appears to him in his dreams and causes him to lose his eyes and die the next day. It is said Gest is buried in his baptismal clothes (​í hvítavaðum​). The remaining phrases refer to the men who have drowned as part of the events following Thórgunna’s death and who start ‘wringing water from their clothing’ (t​ óku at vinda sik)​ . Although the word ‘clothing’ is not included in the original, it is still presumed. The word r​ eifa,​ to swaddle, is mentioned in ​Bárðar saga,​ ch. 3, where the peculiar swaddling clothes of Thorkell Skin-swathed are subject to attention. 35 5.1.8. Descriptions and names concerning clothing and textiles No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Description Arnbjǫrn var engi Arnbjörn was not a showy 195 Erb 40 106 338 áburðarmaðr áburðarmaðr man ǫ His brother Björn, on the Bj rn, bróðir hans, var other hand, was a great one áburðarmaðr mikill, er for show, and when he came hann kom út, ok helt sik 196 Erb 40 107 back to Iceland he would 338 áburðarmaðr vel því at hann hafði dress in finery after the samit sik eptir sið ǫ fashion of people of útlenzkra h fðingja; distinction abroad. for she was a vain woman því at hon var glysgjǫrn 225 Erb 50 137 and fond of showy 357 skartskona ok skartskona mikil; adornment. Þá bauð Þuríðr henni Then Thurið invited her to þangat til vistar með come and stay with her, for 233 Erb 50 sér, því at hon vissi, at 138 357 fjǫlskrúðig she knew that Thórgunna Þórgunna var ǫ liked to dress up fj lskrúðig, Table 17. Adjectives about dress in ​Snæfellingasögur​. The inclination to dress up is mentioned only a handful of times in ​Snæfellingasögur and the adjectives are restricted to E​ yrbyggja saga ​only. The relevance of áburðarmaðr ​is discussed above in 5.1.1.​ T​ he other two phrases, ​skartskona and fjǫlskrúðig appear in the dealings of Thórgunna and Thurid, ch. 50. F​ jǫlskrúðig is undoubtedly a cognate of s​ krúðklæði,​ which has already been discussed above (see 5.1.1). No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Lengt var nafn hans ok var He received a nickname and was 67 Vgl 5 70 230 kallaðr Þorgrímr prúði. called Thorgrim the Elegant. 68 Vgl 7 Þorgrímr inn prúði 74 Thorgrim the Elegant 234 71 Vgl 8 Þorgrímr inn prúði 77 Thorgrim 235 72 Vgl 8 Þorgrímr inn prúði 77 Thorgrim 236 79 Vgl 10 Þorgrímr inn prúði 80 Thorgrim the Elegant 238 80 Vgl 12 Þorgríms prúða 83 Thorgrim the Elegant 240 83 Vgl 13 Þorgrími inum prúða 84 Thorgrim the Elegant 241 84 Vgl 13 Þorgrím prúða 85 Thorgrim the Elegant 242 88 Vgl 15 Þorgrím prúða 91 Thorgrim the Elegant 247 89 Vgl 16 Þorgrím prúða 94 Thorgrim the Elegant 250 90 Vgl 17 Þorgrím prúða 95 Thorgrim the Elegant 251 92 Vgl 19 Þorgríms prúða 101 Thorgrim the Elegant 255 93 Vgl 19 Þorgríms prúða 102 Thorgrim the Elegant 256 36 94 Vgl 19 Þorgrímr inn prúða 102 Thorgrim the Elegant 256 95 Vgl 19 Þorgríms prúða 102 Thorgrim the Elegant 256 101 Vgl 23 Þorgrímr inn prúði 115 Thorgrim the Elegant 265 102 Vgl 23 Þorgríms prúða 115 Thorgrim the Elegant 266 135 Bj 21 Kolli inn prúði 171 Kolli the Magnificent 193 Table 18. ​Prúðr ​in ​Snæfellingasögur.​ There are two men who are deemed worthy to be named p​ rúði -​ fine, magnificent, stately (CV 1874: 480). The name Thorgrim the Elegant is mentioned 18 times, on the occasion of namegiving it is said that his clothing habits were seen as overbearing: “He was fittingly attired, but many of the king's men thought this excessive, and for this reason they disliked Thorgrim intensely” (V​ iglund’s saga 2002: 230). Kolli the Magnificent is mentioned once in ​Bjarnar saga,​ ch. 21. 5.2. Clothing 5.2.1. ​Kápa No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page hann reið einn saman í blári 126 Bj 11 136 He rode alone in a black cloak. 170 kápu. She broke into speech: 'There is Hon tók til orða: "Maðr riðr a man riding there,' she said, 'in þar," segir hon, "í blári kápu ok a black cloak, looking very like 128 Bj 11 er alllíkr Þórði Kolbeinssyni, ok 137 170 Thord Kolbeinsson - it is him too hann er ok, ok mun hans ørendi , and his business would be best óþarft." left undone.' 137 Bj 25 Hann var í blári kápu, 177 He was wearing a black cape, 197 Snorri, on the other hand, wore en Snorri var í svartri kápu ok ǫ a black cloak and was riding a reið sv rtu merhrossi góðu; 161 Erb 13 23 good black mare; he had an old 291 hann hafði fornan trogsǫðul ok trough-shaped saddle, and his vápn litt til fegrdar búin; weapons had little adornment. 166 Erb 14 undan kápu sinni. 25 from under his cloak. 292 Snorri goði var í blári kápu ok Snorri Goði was in the lead, 221 Erb 47 134 355 reiðr fyrstr. wearing a black cloak. Hann tók annarri hendi í As soon as he reached Snorri he 222 Erb 47 kápuermina, er þeir Snorri 134 seized hold of his cloak-sleeve 355 fundusk, with one hand, Table 19. ​Kápa ​in ​Snæfellingasögur​. There are seven instances of k​ ápa being mentioned in the Snæfellingasögur with five individual cloaks referenced. Researchers (Straubhaar 2005: 59, D’Ettore 2009: 2) 37 translate this as ‘hooded cloak’. In comparison to other garments, it is remarkable that four of the five k​ ápa m​ entioned are assigned a colour, either s​ vartr or b​ lár.​ The nature of these hues and their relation to conflict is further discussed in 5.6.3, but all the hooded cloaks save for one are said to be ​blár. The one that is said to be ​svartr​, is Snorri godi’s when arriving back from abroad in E​ yrbyggja saga, c​ h. 13 (ÍF IV: 22-23). Here it is placed in juxtaposition to Thorleif Kimbi’s outfit: “​ En er þeir bjuggursk frá skipi, Breiðfirðingarnir, þá skauzk þar mjǫk í tvau horn um búnað þeira Snorra ok Þorleifs kimba.” Thorleif’s clothes are said to be magnificent (v​ ǫnduð ǫll klæði​). He is said to have spent most of his travel money on his outfit. Snorri on the other hand is mocked because people thought he had lost his travel money and could not afford a better outfit than the ​svartr ​ ​kápa​. This can be interpreted as lying in dress, as already in the next chapter we learn that instead Snorri has brought back his travel money, given it to the custody of his foster father Thorbrand. Snorri demands his share of his heritage from his uncle Börk Digri, who sets terms supposing Snorri has no money. Instead, Thorbrand produces Snorri’s purse from under his ​kápa​. Börk suffers further losses when upon leaving the farm, Snorri’s mother Thórdís declares herself divorced from him and the saga author wryly notes: “Börk was now forced to accept the terms he had intended for others.” (E​ yrbyggja saga​ 1999: 292-293, ÍF IV: 25) The k​ ápa Thorbrand wears in E​ yrbyggja saga ​, ch. 14 and which is used to conceal the purse, is the only one that does not warrant further description, and is there to serve as a twist in the plot. The s​ kikkja Thorgerd wears in ch. 27 of the same saga, serves a similar purpose. 5.2.2. ​Feldr No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page 2 Brð 3 Þorkel Rauðfeldsson 107 Thorkel, son of Red-cloak 240 12 Brð 4 Þorkell Rauðfeldsson 112 Thorkel Red-cloak's son 241 16 Brð 5 Þorkell Rauðfeldsson 114 Thorkel Red-cloak's son 242 en annarr Rauðfeldr eptir föður and the other Red-cloak after 17 Brð 5 114 242 hans. Thorkel's father 18 Brð 5 Rauðfeld 114 Red-cloak 242 38 19 Brð 5 Rauðfeldr 114 Red-cloak 242 21 Brð 5 Rauðfeld 117 Red-cloak 243 22 Brð 5 Rauðfeldr 117 Red-cloak 243 23 Brð 5 Rauðfeld 117 Red-cloak 243 24 Brð 5 Rauðfeldr 117 Red-cloak 243 25 Brð 5 Rauðfeldsgjá 117 Raudfeldsgja 243 He took the cloak and pulled it 36 Brð 8 tók hann þá feldinn 126 247 over himself for protection. They were given cloaks to wrap 140 Bj 27 Feldir váru þeim fengnir yfir sér, 184 202 themselves in, ok tólf vararfeldir ok farnest twelve sheepskins and food for 194 Erb 39 105 337 hans. the voyage. Table 20. F​ eldr ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. There are fifteen instances of f​ eldr being mentioned in the ​Snæfellingasögur.​ However, twelve of these are as part of names and the names that stem from the flashy garment the son of Svadi the Giant, Red-cloak the Strong ( ​Rauðfeldr inum sterka)​ , had. His son is named Thorkell Red-cloak’s son and in turn his son is simply called Red-cloak. Bárd throws the young Red-cloak into a ravine, which is subsequently called R​ auðfeldsgjá ( ​Bárðar saga,​ chs. 2-5). This kind of inheriting a supposed garment is unique in the Snæfellingasögur ​. ONP defines ​feldr is a mantle or cloak, possibly of piled fabric and either circular or rectangular. Anna Zanchi (2007: 119) describes ​feldr as an exclusively male sleeveless outer garment made of either plain or piled v​ aðmál without referencing a source, which is probably Falk (1919: 173-178). ‘Piled’ means that another material is inserted into the fabric during weaving - traditional carpets are the best-known piled textiles. In Iceland, this was done by inserting locks of unspun fleece (Elsa Guðjónsson 1962: 66), whereby a sheepskin-like effect was achieved. Chapter 8 of ​Bárðar saga concerns itself with a feud between the mean troll woman Hetta and a man called Ingjald. Hetta promises to compensate for the killing of Ingjald’s livestock by pointing out a superb fishing spot, which she calls Grim’s Bank, but this turns out to be a trap. A storm brews up on the sea and in this weather Ingjald sees a red bearded man who calls himself Grim and who does not permit retreat to the land. Ingjald calls on Bárd for help and covers himself with his trusty fur cloak for protection (the f​ eldr is named twice in this paragraph). At the same time, Hetta recites 39 a verse behind the window of Ingjald’s farm, repeating the line ​Ingjaldr i skinnfeldi four times. On the one hand, Ingjald seeking protection from a warm garment seems entirely practical. On the other hand, Roscoe (1992: 252-271) has explored and found further footing for the idea put forward by Jón Hnefill Aðalsteinsson (1978) that covering oneself with a garment was not as much creating a private space for deliberation, but communicating with the supernatural. Although in the case of B​ árðar saga Ingjald is said to call on Bárd before covering himself, the proximity of the two actions is maintained. In ​Bjarnar saga ch. 27, ​feldir are a part of the poor hospitality that is offered by Björn to Thorstein, the kinsman of Björn’s enemy Thord: “Eigi varu þar eldar gǫrvir né skipt um klæði, ok váru þeir vatnir ok frørnir. [...] Feldir váru þeim fengnir yfir sér, því at skóklæði þeira váru frørin, ok máttu þeir eigi ór komask, er engi var eldinn gǫrr; engi váru þeim ok boðin þurr fǫt. [...] Þann veg var nætrbjǫrg þeira, at sumir kómusk ór brókum, ok heng þær um nóttina á þili frørnar, og lǫgðusk þá til svefns.” (ÍF III: 184-185) “There were no fires made there and no change of clothes was offered, although they were wet and frozen. [...] They were given cloaks to wrap themselves in, for their shoes and socks were frozen so that they could not get them off, as no fire was kindled. Nor were they offered any dry clothes. [...] This was what their night's lodging was like: some of them got themselves out of their breeches, which hung, frozen, overnight on the partition, and then they lay down to sleep.” ( ​The Saga of Bjorn​ 2002: 201-202) This might indicate that the f​ eldr was a low status garment that came as basic hospitality after a roof over the travellers’ head but before a fire. This, however, is not the case with the reference in E​ yrbyggja saga,​ ch. 39, where Arnbjörn arrives at the ship at the last minute with three hundred ells of v​ aðmál,​ twelve ​vararfeldir ​, and food for the voyage. These were most probably not ´sheepkins´ but piled cloaks (Damsholt 1984: 82) as opposed to B​ árðar saga ​, where the cloak is specifically said to be s​ kinnfeldr.​ The ​skinnfeldr w​ ere probably fur garments (made of sheepskins), while ​vararfeldir w​ ere most probably piled garments, approximately two by one metre in dimension (Elsa Guðjónsson 1962: 68). 40 5.2.3. ​Skikkja No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Ok nú um vetrinn eptra var Then the next winter Bjorn Bjǫrn í Nóregi, ok gaf Óláfr stayed in Norway, and King Olaf konungr honum skikkju gave him a finely made cloak 124 Bj 9 134 169 vandaða, ok hét honum sinni and promised him his vináttu ok kallaði hann vera friendship, calling him an vaskan mann ok góðan dreng. intrepid man and a fine fellow. It is said that when he was Þat er sagt, þá er Bjǫrn var about to leave at the end of his búinn á brott ór vist inni, þá gaf stay, he gave Oddny the cloak 131 Bj 14 hann Oddnúju skikkjuna 150 179 which had been Thord's, and Þórðarnaut, ok mælti hvárt ǫ they spoke fondly to each þeira vel fyrir ðru. other. Geirrið was wearing a blue 180 Erb 20 Geirriðr hafði blá skikkju yfir sér. 53 307 cloak. Geirriðr varp af sér skikkjunni ok Geirrið threw off her cloak and 183 Erb 20 53 307 gekk at Kǫtlu went over to Katla; Þá brá Þorgerðr hǫfðinu undan produced the head from under 185 Erb 27 69 316 skikkju sinni her cloak en af óskiptri minni eigu skal But before you divide up my 246 Erb 51 Þuríðr hafa skarlatsskikkju Þá, er 142 property, Thuríð is to have the 359 ek á; scarlet cloak I own. Table 21. Examples of ​skikkja ​in ​Snæfellingasögur​. The ​skikkja are mentioned seven times in ​Snæfellingasögur,​ with five individual cloaks mentioned, all except one seeming to refer to a female garment. One reference is from Bjarnar saga ​, all the other references come from ​Eyrbyggja saga.​ There seems to be two different ​skikkja in ​Bjarnar saga ​- one that King Ólaf gives Björn in Norway and one that Björn gives to Oddný and which said to have been a gift from Thord. King Ólaf is pictured as a generous gift-giver on several occasions, yet how and when did Thord, whose conflict with Björn is the backbone of the saga, give Björn a skikkja ​, is unclear. 41 The cloak the sorceress Geirrid wears when she meets Arnkel and his men, who have already made three unsuccessful searches for Odd Kötluson, is said to be blue (for further discussion on b​ lár, s​ ee 5.6.3). Geirrid’s determination is further underlined with the mention of taking off the cloak, which is unique in this corpus. The second s​ kikkja i​ s worn by the equally determined Thorgerð, who - upon receiving the advice to dig up her late husband and cut off his head in order to convince Arnkel to take revenge for the killing - replies that “she could see that they were sparing her neither trouble nor misery - ´but I shall do it,’ she said, ‘if it makes things worse for my enemies.’” ( ​Eyrbyggja saga 1​ 999: 316). She indeed goes to Arnkel and “produced the head from under her cloak” (E​ yrbyggja saga ​1999: 316). The ​skikkja s​ eems to serve the practical purpose of concealing the element of surprise, just as with the k​ ápa Thorbrand wears in ​Eyrbyggja saga​, ch. 14. The last ​skikkja i​ n the corpus is specifically said to be a s​ karlatsskikkja,​ which Thórgunna bequaths to Thuríd on her deathbed. Thórgunna has arrived in Iceland on a ship with “some finery [...] which was difficult to obtain in Iceland” (E​ yrbyggja saga 1999: 357), and is met by the vain mistress of Fróðá, Thuríd. Thórgunna accepts lodgings with Thuríd, but is taken ill after there is a shower of blood and subsequently dies. This is the single instance in which ​skarlat is used in S​ næfellingasögur.​ John Munro (2003: 214) describes ​skarlat a​ s “the very finest and most costly” of wool fabrics, that is dyed using kermes (often in combination with other dyes) and heavily finished. The value of the ​skikkja ​as implied by the addition of ​skarlat- is in stark contrast to the conclusion Thuríd arrives at when viewing Thórgunna’s possessions on the ship: “o​ k sýndusk henni vel gripirnir ok sem bezt farandi, en eigi fémiklir​” (ÍF IV: 138; “Thuríð thought them attractive and well-made, and not very costly” ( ​Eyrbyggja saga 1​ 999: 357)). This discrepancy is not further elaborated on in the saga, so the question remains as to whether Thórgunna deliberately concealed some items from Thuríd on the ship or whether it might point to a multitude of oral traditions. 42 5.2.4. M​ öttul A ​möttul i​ s, according to the ONP, a​ c​ oat or an overcoat. No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page where she sat her ok setr þar niðr griðkonu sína ok 75 Vgl 8 77 servant-woman down and laid 236 leggr yfir hana möttul sinn her own cloak over her Table 22. Examples of ​möttul ​ in S​ næfellingasögur​. The ​möttul o​ ccurs only once in the ​Snæfellingasögur ​, in ​Víglundar saga, ch. 8, and it is rather peculiar. Einar, a man from the district, wishes to undermine Thorgrim the Proud’s authority by raping his wife Ólof. However, he and his brother are outwitted by Ólof and bear a grudge for this afterwards. In the scene, it is said that with no men at present, Ólof knows of the brothers’ coming because the men´s door of the house was habitually locked after them. Ólof sits a maid on her bench in the sewing room, dressed in her own mantle. The brothers enter and begin talking to the maid when “ ​Í þessu kom maðr í stofuna bláklæddr ok helt á brugðnu sverði. Maðrinn var ekki stórr vexti, en allreiðugligr var hann. ​” The shortish man, who is later revealed to be Ólof, is said to be wearing b​ lá and with a sword, altogether looking fierce. Ólof in disguise says her/his name is Ottar and asks the brothers to step out to watch the master return with a great company. By this time the brothers have clearly lost their judgement after being subjected to Ólof’s determination, the blue mantle, and the sword, because what they are actually fleeing from is cattle. This can be interpreted as lying in dress par excellence. This is the single instance in S​ næfellingasögur where a woman dresses as a man, imitating maleness, as Anna Zanchi (2007: 241) puts it. Zanchi lists a few other instances where women are seen to disguise themselves as men in order to deceive the enemy. In Þ​ orgils saga ok Hafliða - a contemporary saga - ​the women meet the enemy ‘wearing breeches’, because similarly to ​Víglundar saga ​, the enemy relied on meeting a household of defenceless women. 43 Apparently there is an episode in L​ axdæla saga where the master of the house orders four maids to impersonate men to sow fear in the enemy, but here the women are not taking initiative, so the scene does not have a similar impact. (Zanchi 2007: 238-246) 5.2.5. ​Kufl No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page 38 Brð 8 hann var í grám kufli 127 He was in a grey cowl 247 43 Brð 9 at hann var í grám kufli 129 in a grey cowl 248 45 Brð 10 sá var hann í grám kufli 133 He was in a grey cowl 249 in a grey cowl 47 Brð 10 í grám kufli 135 250 50 Brð 11 ok var í grám kufli 139 wearing a grey cowl 251 107 Bj 7 hann hafði kufl 128 He had a cloak 164 Table 23. ​Kufl i​ n ​Snæfellingasögur While the ONP translates ​kufl as a monk’s hood, the instances in ​Snæfellingasögur tell of laymen. CV (1874: 357) list ​kufl ​as a hood or a cowled cloak. The examples in Snæfellingasögur seem to describe an overgarment rather than a cowl, which would perhaps cover the shoulders, but not more. Zanchi (2007: 119) describes the k​ ufl ​as “a wide, long hooded cloak, either open or sewn in the front” but does not include a reference. In the five examples ​in B​ árðar saga,​ it is B​ árd who is said to be wearing the gray - that is undyed - ​kufl​. This is a voluntary choice, and does not indicate a shortage of means, because in ch. 12, he is said to have given Thordis a “handsome set of women’s clothes”(B​ ard’s saga ​1997: 253). Bárd and his grey ​kufl​ become almost synonymous. In ​Bjarnar saga, ​ch. 7, Björn wears the ​kufl over his clothes when crouching in a bush and spying on Thord Kolbeinsson. It is specifically stated that the k​ ufl was used to cover Björn’s clothes, and it is reasonable to assume that the garment was more modest than the successful plunderer usually wore. This is in accord with the unassuming nature of the k​ ufl ​in ​Bárðar saga ​. 44 5.2.6. ​Hekla a​ nd ​hetta No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item hann hafði bláflekkótta he wore a blue-spotted cape 56 Brð 18 skautheklu ok kneppta niðr 163 with a hood, which buttoned hekla í milli fóta sér. all the way down to his feet. 33 Brð 8 Hetta 124 Hetta 246 hetta 34 Brð 8 fjölkynngis Hettu 126 Hetta's witchcraft 247 hetta 37 Brð 8 Hettu 127 Hetta 247 hetta 40 Brð 8 Hetta 127 Hetta 247 hetta Han hafði verit í He was wearing a felt hood flókahettu, ok saumat í with a piece of horn sewn 213 Erb 45 128 352 hetta horn um hálsinn, ok kom into the collar, where the þar í hǫggit. blow had landed. Table 24. ​Hetta ​in ​Snæfellingasögur​. Of the eight instances ​hetta ​, a type of hood, is mentioned, six occur in B​ árðar saga,​ and even then five are in reference to the witch Hetta. In the remaining instance (#56), the one-eyed heathen Rauðgrani joins Gest’s party when they make their way to King Raknar’s grave mound. The priest Jostein becomes overridden by anger and attacks Rauðgrani with his crucifix. Rauðgrani disappears into the sea and it is said that only now did they realise it was Odin. Rauðgrani’s deviation from the Christian norm, his otherness, is underlined by the peculiarity of his unparalleled outfit. This is the single instance a spotted item is mentioned in the ​Snæfellingasögur ​, yet not the only one in the Mediaeval Icelandic literary corpus by far (ONP). The ONP suggests that ​skauthekla is a scribal error that should actually read ​skauthetta,​ whereas h​ ekla ​in itself is an accepted term for a sleeveless cloak. This means ‘without fashioned sleeves’ rather than ‘not covering the arms’. It is unlikely that this would have been a hood, when the garment is said to have been buttoned down to the feet or buttoned between the legs. CV (1874: 540) lists the garment as ​skauthetta with a reference to the scene in B​ árðar saga ​, but does differentiate between a h​ etta and a h​ ekla ​. H​ ekla ​is said to be “a kind of cowled or ​hooded frock, knitted of divers colours” (CV 1874:253), which is utterly confusing because knitted fabric is unsuited for the production of a large and heavy 45 item, and more importantly, knitting was introduced to Iceland sometime at the beginning of the 16th century (Vigdís Stefánsdóttir 2003). H​ etta ​is rendered as ‘hood’ in CV (1874: 260). The garment, scribal errors or not, can thus be counted on to have a hood. What is meant by the attributive s​ kaut-​ is also difficult to pinpoint. ​Skaut m​ eans a sheet, a corner of a cloth, the skirt or the sleeve of a garment, or even a hood fashioned with ends hanging down. ​Skauthetta is translated as ‘a hood with a flap’, yet skautfeldr is a ​‘sheet-cloak’​ , ‘square cloak’. (CV 1874: 540) Therefore a ​skauthekla could be rendered as ‘hooded hood’, leaving no doubt that the garment can be used to cover the head and possibly used to cover the face. However, there are only two instances where a b​ láflekkóttr (​ ONP) is mentioned in the Mediaeval Icelandic corpus, once in B​ árðar saga (ch. 18, ÍF XIII: 163) and once in a legendary saga (f​ ornaldar saga ​), Ö​ rvar-Odd’s saga (​ ch. 19, Heimskringla.no),​ w​ here again Odin appears under the name Rauðgrani and the blue-spotted garment is a hekla ​. He is said to have let the hood conceal his face (“H​ ann var í bláflekkóttri heklu, uppháva skó ok reyrsprota í hendi; hann hafði gullfjallaða glófa, meðalmaðr á vöxt ok kurteisligr at sjá; hann lét síga höttinn fyrir andlitit. ​”). The hood is one of the hallmarks of Odin (Roscoe 1992: 140), an easily transferable characteristic, examples of which include the witch Hetta mentioned above, and Bárd and his g​ rár kufl, d​ iscussed in 5.2.5. The ​flókahetta i​ n E​ yrbyggja saga ​, ch. 45 is specifically said to have a collar, so it must be a hood or a cowl, rather than simply a ‘felt-hat’ (CV 1874: 162). However, as other meanings of ​flóki include hair, wool, a goat’s beard, and a foal with shaggy skin, this might also mean that it could have been used to describe a piled fabric, similar to those used in ​vararfeldar ​. The ​flókahetta is also unique because it is said that a piece of horn had been sewn into the collar ( ​saumat í horn um halsinn)​ , which could perhaps also be interpreted as ‘decorated with horn’. In any case, Steinthór manages to strike at Freystein’s neck: 46 “Steinthór said, ‘Did that one hit you, Freystein?’ ‘It hit me, certainly,’ said Freystein, ‘but not as hard as you thought, because I am not wounded.’” (E​ yrbyggja saga 1​ 999: 351-352) The garment, although not having magical properties, postpones Freystein’s death for entirely pragmatic reasons. 5.2.7. ​Hǫttr No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page It represented two men, one of þat váru karlar tveir, ok hafði 132 Bj 17 ǫ ǫ 154 them with a black hat on his 182 annarr h tt blán á h fði; head. ǫ ǫ ǫ a hood on his head and a shield h tt á h fði ok skj ld á hlið; at his side. He had in his hand 147 Bj 32 sverð hafði hann í hendi, er 197 211 the sword belonging to Thorfinn Þorfinnr Þvarason átti. Thvarason. Table 25. ​Hǫttr ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. Hǫttr is a cognate of ​hetta and is rendered as hood or a cowl fastened to a cloak (CV 1874: 312). There are two occasions on which ​hǫttr is mentioned in S​ næfellingasögur. Both instances are from B​ jarnar saga ​, but in radically different situations. The first instance, in ch. 17, is actually a ‘something’ on Thord’s land, which seems to have depicted homosexual intercourse. Nothing else is said of the men represented but “ ​ok hafði annarr hǫtt blán á hǫfði”​ , which would actually be a dyed (blue) hat. However, it is clear that one of the men is thought to be Thord, yet the dyed hood is not mentioned elsewhere. Curiously enough, Björn, who is thought to have erected the insult and who certainly composed a slandering verse to go with it, is the one described as wearing a ​hǫttr to the battle he is killed in in ch. 32. He is described as being well dressed (see 5.2.9 and 5.3.4 for further discussion), but the colour of the hood is not specified. 47 5.2.8. ​Kofri No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Kjolvor knew all about this and Allt vissi Kjölvör þetta ok fór climbed up on the house and upp á hús ok veifði kofra sínum í 81 Vgl 12 83 waved her hood in the easterly 240 austrætt, ok þykknaði skjótt direction, and all at once the veðrit. weather turned bad. Table 25. ​Kofri ​ in ​Snæfellingasögur. There is a single instance of ​kofri in ​Snæfellingasögur, a rather enigmatic occurrence in Víglundar saga, ​ch. 12. A ​fjölkunnig woman called Kjölvör i​ s paid by the brothers Jokul and Einar to destroy Viglund and Trausti “by any magic she chose” (V​ iglund’s saga 2002: 239). Viglund and Trausti accompany their farmhand to sea, because his usual companions have been taken ill by Kjölvör’s magic. When the boat is on the sea, Kjölvör elicits a change in the weather by “waving her hood in the easterly direction” on top of her house. This scene is highly reminiscent of the one in B​ árðar saga ​, ch. 8 (discussed further in 5.2.6 and 5.2.5) where there is also a woman skilled in magic, a man in a boat fishing, the weather turns quickly, and there is a character who refuses to return before the boat is filled with fish. Yet, in B​ árðar saga ​, it is the ill-willed Grim who is defeated by Bárd, while in V​ íglundar saga ​, it is the fearless farmhand who takes that role. There is also no description of Hetta going about her magic (or the garments involved), but the similarity of these scenes is striking. 5.2.9. ​Kyrtill A tunic (k​ yrtill) ​is mentioned 8 times in the corpus: once in B​ árðar saga, f​ our times in Bjarnar saga ​, and three times in E​ yrbyggja saga. ​All of the tunics belong to men. 48 No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page ok færði honum kyrtil and presented him with a newly 27 Brð 6 120 244 nýgervan made cloak. Thord composed a drapa about Þórðr orti drápu um Ólaf King Olaf; then he went and recited konung; síðan fór hann ok œ it himself, and received from the 106 Bj 7 f rði sjálfr ok þá af konungi 127 163 king a gold ring, a silken tunic gullhring ok pellskyrtil trimmed with lace, and a fine hlaðbúinn ok sverð gott. sword. Bjǫrn skyldi hafa Bjorn was to have a tunic of 110 Bj 8 131 167 guðvefjarkyrtil precious cloth Bjorn gave Thorfinna a gold ring Þorfinnu gaf Bjǫrn gullhring and the costly woven tunic which ok guðvefjarkyrtil, er Óláfr King Olaf had given to Thord konungr hafði gefit Þórði 145 Bj 29 191 Kolbeinsson, and which the king 207 Kolbeinssyni, ok hann gerði had given into Bjorn's possession til handa Birni eptir rán í after the robbery in the Branno Brenneyjum. islands 148 Bj 32 Bjǫrn hafði kyrtil góðan 199 Bjorn had on a fine tunic 212 En þeir kómu í Holt til Kǫtlu, When they arrived at Holt, Katla fœrdi hon Odd, son sinn, í dressed her son Odd in a 169 Erb 18 34 297 kyrtil móbrúnan, er hon dark-brown tunic she had just hafði þá nýgǫrt. made. hann var ekki sárr, því at eigi Odd was unharmed, as now 171 Erb 18 37 299 festi vápn á kyrtli hans. weapon could penetrate his tunic. Þeir Steinþórr rið at durum, Steinthór and his men came riding 205 Erb 44 ok er svá frá sagt, at hann 120 up to the door; it is said that he was 347 væri í rauðum kyrtli wearing a scarlet tunic Table 27. Instances of ​kyrtill ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. Three of these instances (#27 in B​ árðar saga ​, #169 and #171 in E​ yrbyggja saga)​ follow the same pattern: the mother who knows her way around magic3 presents her son with a newly made tunic before sending him off to battle; subsequently, the son is unharmed. However, in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ the protective power of the tunic is specifically mentioned, and alluded to during the battle: “ ​Ekki festi vápn á Oddi Kǫtlusyni. ​” (ÍF IV: 36; ‘But no weapon could hurt Odd Kötluson.’ (E​ yrbyggja saga 1999: 298)). In B​ árðar saga ​, Einar’s victory in battle is attributed to his calling on Bárð for victory. 3 ​Hildigunn is said to be f​ jölkynnig ​(‘skilled in sorcery’) in ​Bárðar saga, c​ h. 6; in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ Katla both performs magic in ch. 20 and in ch. 15 compares herself to Geirrid: “ ​en fleiri konur kunnu sér nǫkkut en hon ein. ​” ([‘B]ut there are others who have knowledge of magic.’). 49 As an interesting excursion, the post-reformatory I​ lluga saga Tagldarbana,​ chs. 19 and 22, features a coat of mail ( ​brynja​) that is received as a gift and which is said to be impenetrable. ( ​Illuga saga Tagldarbana​ - Heimskringla.no) The other ​kyrtill mentioned are all valuable items, which are often used in barter. In Bjarnar saga ​(ch. 7, #106), King Ólaf gives Thord “g​ ullhring, ok pellskyrtil hlaðbúinn ok sverð gott​” (‘a gold ring, a silken tunic trimmed with lace, and a fine sword’). The translation “trimmed with lace” seems rather unfortunate and anachronistic (but is probably based on CV 1874: 269), as both ÍF III (127) and Falk (1919: 155) translate hlað as ‘ribbon’ or ‘border’. This was probably was used to refer to a tablet-woven or embroidered embellishment, which were much more common in Viking Age and Mediaeval clothing. The king later (ch. 8) negotiates a truce between Björn and Thord whereby Björn now gets the tunic along with a gold ring. The tunic is referred to as ​gudvefjarkyrtill i​ n this episode and the next. That it was actually the same tunic is said in ch. 29, where Björn forwards the tunic to Thorfinna, the wife of his sworn brother Thorstein Kuggason, along with a gold ring. The remaining two references to k​ yrtill ​are both connected to the ensuing battle again. In B​ jarnar saga,​ ch. 32, Björn is said to have “large mane-shears at his belt, a hood on his head and a shield at his side. He had in his hand the sword belonging to Thorfinn Thavarason. Bjorn was a very tall man, handsome and freckled, red-bearded and curly-haired, weak-sighted, but an excellent fighting man.” This comes at a rather odd point in the narrative, as Björn has been the main character in the whole of saga. His description is further augmented after a couple of verses and paragraphs: “Bjorn had on a fine tunic and was wearing hose, and bound around his leg was the silk garter he had got in exchange with the blessed King Olaf.” The descriptions later turn out to be an early eulogy, as Björn is killed after fiercely defending himself with the shears. The ​kyrtil góðan has no impact on the outcome of the battle (as the newly made tunics mentioned above did); in ch. 33 it is said that he was buried in his clothes and garter. 50 The tunic Steinthór wears in E​ yrbyggja saga ​, ch. 44, is also presented as part of a larger description: “[I]t is said that he was wearing a scarlet tunic with the front tucked up under his belt. He had a beautiful shield and helmet; at his waist he had a splendidly ornamented sword: the hilt shone with white silver, and the grip was bound with silver wire and edged with gold.” He is perceived as both eloquent and strapping by at least one of the women of the household, who remarks: “Steinthór of Eyr is not only a fine-looking warrior; he also spoke very well when he delivered the slave-payment” (E​ yrbyggja saga 1999: 347). The battle commences with appropriate vigour. The translation is somewhat off the mark as Steinthór is said to be “ ​í rauðum kyrtli ok hafði drept upp fyrirblǫðunum undir belti”,​ that is, wearing ‘a red tunic with the front apron tuck under the belt’. This makes for a remarkable difference in three ways. Firstly, although dyeing would make any garment more costly, a true scarlet (dyed with kermes, obtained from certain molluscs in the whelk family) was the most expensive cloth known to man (Munro 2003: 212). This would have made for a truly remarkable garment, although apparently red, probably dyed with madder (R​ ubia tinctorum)​ , was impressive enough to warrant a mention (for further discussion on reds, see 5.6.4). Secondly, ​skarlat,​ a cognate of the English ‘scarlet’, is a well-established term in the sagas of Icelanders. It was not necessarily a type of red but rather referred primarily to the high quality of the luxury cloth, which was dyed to a variety of colours (Munro 2003: 213). Therefore, to translate ​rauðr ​as ‘scarlet’ is misleading to the modern reader. The third difference comes with the mention of a front apron, which goes unparalleled in this current corpus. Ewing (2006: 82, 92-93) thinks that a Viking Age kyrtill ​would have been an woollen shirt, not a tunic, and shows that skirted shirts, have been worn with their skirts fastened to the belt. 5.2.10. ​Skyrta No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Trausti reist af skyrtu sinni ok Trausti tore a piece off his shirt 85 Vgl 14 batt upp brúnina á bróður 89 and wound it around Viglund’s 245 sínum; brow. 51 Table 28. S​ kyrta ​ in ​Snæfellingasögur. There is a single instance in S​ næfellingasögur w​ here a s​ kyrta is mentioned, and even then it does not catch the narrator’s attention as a garment, but rather as material for binding up Viglund’s brow. That the shirt is linen can be taken from the fact that Trausti uses his shirt, not any of his overgarments to make the bandage (there would have been plenty of wool garments on him, as they are at the winter games), and interestingly enough, from the conversation upon their arrival at home: “[W]hen they walked into the room Thorgrim was sitting on the cross-bench, and he said, ‘Welcome back, my son and daughter.’ ‘Which one of us are you calling a woman, father?’ asked Trausti. ‘It seems to me,’ said Thorgrim, ‘that the one with the headgear must be the woman.’” ( ​Viglund’s Saga ​2002: 245) The word Thorgrim uses, is ​faldr​. CV (1874: 150) translate ​faldr in its secondary meaning as ‘a white linen hood’, which would perhaps be better rendered as headdress or wimple. In any case, the implication of the conversation is that Viglund is easily identified as a woman because his head is wrapped in linen, and conversely, this would mean that men did not wear linen headwear, such as hats. 5.2.11. ​Serkr No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page sá hann, at Helga sat upp í He saw Helga sitting up in bed 31 Brð 7 124 246 einum serk. in a shift. Table 29. ​Serkr ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. The single mention of s​ erkr comes from B​ árðar saga ​, ch.7 (ÍF XIII: 123-124), where Helga, who has drifted from Iceland to Greenland in seven days on an ice floe, has been to Norway, is brought back to Iceland by her father because her partner was married. Her heartbreak forces her to seek solitude in caves, and a tale is told about her serving in a household one winter. It is said that Helga spent most nights “with the curtain drawn before her” (“o​ k hafði fortjald fyrir”)​ - distancing herself from others, essentially creating a cave - playing a harp. Helga spending sleepless nights in her bed is comparable to Ketilrid spending her nights in her sewing room (V​ íglundar saga,​ ch. 52 18, ÍF XIV: 97): the private space and the heartbreak are the same. A Norwegian called Hrafn peers under the curtain one night and immediately wants to get into the bed and under the clothes of the beautiful woman he sees there. The English translation does not convey the near nude state Helga is in, as the original is “ ​í einum serk” ​, that is “wearing only a shirt”. From this one can surmise that s​ erkr was considered an undergarment, or rather, that on its own, it became an undergarment (while parts of it, such as sleeves, might show from under other garments). Again, as with Ólof in V​ íglundar saga ​, the plan to rape the woman is hindered by the intended victim: the Norwegian leaves the bed with his right arm and left leg broken. 5.2.12. ​Stakkr No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Nú er at segja frá þrælum To return to Arnkel's slaves: they Arnkels, at þeir gengu inn, þá went inside when they had 191 Erb 37 er þeir hǫfðu inn borit heyit, 102 finished carrying in the hay, and 336 ok fóru af skinnstǫkkum took off their leather sínum. work-clothes. Table 30. ​Stakkr​ in ​Snæfellingasögur. There is a single passing mention of s​ takkr in ​Snæfellingasögur,​ in E​ yrbyggja saga ch. 37. Arnkel has sent his slave home for to get help in the battle, but he is waylaid by another slave asking for help carrying in the hay. CV (1874: 587) define ​stakkr as “a short coarse bag-like blouse without a waist”, while a ​skinnstakkr is said to have been used by fishermen. This is undoubtedly one of the very few work garments mentioned in ​Snæfellingasögur,​ and were obviously not a standard fare, as the slaves remove the ​stakkr​ after finishing their task. Although t​ he ​stakkr ​does not appear elsewhere in S​ næfellingasögur,​ it is standard fare for troll women in f​ ornaldarsögur,​ where it was probably inspired by the dress of the peoples of the North. However, the ​skinnstakkr that the troll women wear are usually long in the front and so short as not to cover their buttocks at the back - these, in opposition to the garment above - are more symbolic than anything else (Aðalheiður Guðmundsdóttir 2017). 53 5.2.13. ​​Brók No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page 3 Brð 3 Skinnbrók 108 Skin-breeches 240 14 Brð 4 Skinnbrók 113 Skin-breeches 241 15 Brð 4 Skinnbrók 113 Skinnbrok 241 This was what their night's Þann veg var nætrbjǫrg þeira, at lodging was like: some of them sumir kómusk ór brókum, ok got themselves out of their 143 Bj 27 185 202 heng þær um nóttina á þili breeches, which hung, frozen, frørnar, og lǫgðusk þá til svefns. overnight on the partition, and then they lay down to sleep. the son of Ragnar Loðbrók 156 Erb 1 Ragnars sonar loðbrókar 4 280 (Shaggy-Breeks) 157 Erb 2 Hauk hábrók 5 Hauk Hábrók (Long-Breeks) 280 He was wearing tight-fitting hann var í leistabrókum, ok váru 215 Erb 45 129 stocking-breeches and they 352 vátar allar af blóðinu. were drenched in blood. One of Snorri's men was helping Heimamaðr Snorra goða skyldi him off with his clothes, but draga af honum; ek er hann 216 Erb 45 129 when he tried to remove the 352 skyldi kippa brókinni, fekk han breeches he could not pull them eigi af honum komit. off. Thoródd said, 'You cannot be Þóroddr mælti: "Vantekit mun á pulling hard enough.' The man vera." Eptir þat spyrndi sá ǫ braced one of his feet against 218 Erb 45 ðrum fœti í stokkinn ok togaði 129 353 ǫ the bench and tugged as hard af llum afli, ok gekk eigi af as he could, but the breeches brókin. would not come off. Þá gekk til Snorri goði ok Then Snorri Goði came over and þreifaði um fótinn ok fann, at felt the leg, and found that a spjót stóð í gegnum fótinn milli spear-blade was logged in it 219 Erb 45 129 353 hásinarinnar ok fótleggsisn ok between the tendon and the hafði níst allt sama, fótinn ok shin-bone and had pinned the brókina. breeches to the leg. Table 31. ​Brók i​ n ​Snæfellingasögur. Of the ten times b​ rók (trousers) are mentioned in ​Snæfellingasögur,​ five instances are part of a name. The mythical king Ragnar Loðbrók’s lineage is mentioned once in Eyrbyggja saga (note however that the nickname Loðbrók is not given in B​ árðar saga ​) and is commonly translated as Shaggy-breeches. The particular pair of trousers does not warrant any mention in ​Bárðar saga ​ either. Hák hábrók is also a peculiar instance, as CV (1874: 82) also mention a woman called 54 langbrók ​not because of her attire, but because she is tall. This might cast some light onto the origins of ​loðbrók ​as well, if it is interpreted as being a physical characteristic rather than the quality of the garment - after all, Raknar is said to have a black beard, which might come with a particularly impressive set of leg hair. Among the people in Bárd’s crew emigrating to Iceland in ​Bárðar saga,​ chs. 3-4, two slave-women are mentioned, one of them called Kneif and the other Skinnbrók (‘Skin-breeches’). They come essentially as a pair, because both are given land upon their arrival and peninsulas are named after them, which is remarkable enough on two accounts: these are women and they are slaves, but they become landowners in their own right. Anna Zanchi (2007: 239) is quick to dismiss Skinnbrók as being undergarments, but there might be more to it. Arnkel’s slaves in ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 37, are said to wear leather garments for work, so it might also be that these are essentially work clothes that are referenced in her name. There are only two instances where actual trousers catch the narrator’s attention. The first one is an involved tragicomic scene in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ ch. 45, in which one of Snorri godi’s men is trying to pull off the blood-soaked stocking breeches ( ​leistabrók)​ from Thórodd Thorbrandsson. First the man remarks that the Thorbrandsson’s truly are flashy dressers (s​ undrgørðamenn miklir​), as the breeches are so tight that they refuse to come off. Thórodd, either accustomed to the pain caused by taking off the trousers (or accustomed to having no feeling in his legs due to depressed circulation), asks the man to pull harder, which he does by bracing one foot against the bench. One can only imagine the agony caused (but not mentioned in the saga), because now comes Snorri and scolds the man for being stupid as Snorri discovers a spear blade between the tendon and the shin. As an unexpected comparison point, it turns out that a toddler can be dressed with ease in dungarees which are moderately slim-fitting, whereas a thorough immersion in puddles renders the garment very difficult to remove. However, it is clear from the scene that l​ eistabrók are perceived as part of (overly) 55 fashionable dress, that men were accustomed to being helped out of their clothing, and the stocking-breeches were tight. The remaining instance of ​brók comes from B​ jarnar saga ​, ch. 27, where the poor hospitality Thord and his party receive on their first night at Björn’s farm, is exemplified by the fact that only some of them managed to get out of their trousers, but even then they hung frozen overnight. There is no mention of what the trousers look like. 5.3. Accessories 5.3.1. Headgear No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item 'that the one with the "sem þat muni kona vera, 86 Vgl 14 89 headgear must be the 245 faldr sem faldinn hefir." woman.' Svá er sagt, at Ketilriðr hafi Ketilrid had a veil ever haf hinnu fyrir andliti sér before her face, for she 97 Vgl 21 107 260 hinna ok hafi eigi viljat, at would not that Viglund Víglundr hafi þekkt hana, should know her Hon hafði sprett hinnunni had rent the veil from her 98 Vgl 22 108 261 hinna frá andliti sér face En aldri hafði Ketiliriðr Now Ketilrid never had a veil 99 Vgl 22 hinnu fyrir andliti sér 108 261 hinna before her face þaðan frá, Óvættr ein, er Torfár-Kolla There was an evil spirit hét, en Skinnhúfa öðru named Kolla of Torfa, known 41 Brð 9 128 247 húfa nafni, hon átti heima at also as Skin-cap; she lived at Knausum; Hnausar. Table 32. Headwear in S​ næfellingasögur. Female headdress is referred to in S​ næfellingasögur o​ nly in V​ íglundar saga and ​Bárðar saga ​with three different garments. One of these is actually a makeshift bandage, which is already discussed in 5.2.10. The other is a veil that Ketilrid is said to have worn to conceal her identity from Viglund, who has actually recognised her already. The veil has a clear literary function, but due to the single instance it is mentioned, it is impossible to say whether this custom was actually adopted by Icelandic women on a larger scale or whether this was 56 simply a continental loan (Sävborg 2007: 469) in the narrative. Húfa is defined in CV (1874: 293) as “a hood, cap, bonnet”. There is a single instance mention of h​ úfa in ​Bárðar saga ​, ch. 9, where it ​belongs to an evil woman who is said to have done much harm. 5.3.2. Belts No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item Bjorn gave him a knife and a ok gaf honum til kníf ok belt as a bribe to tell him belti, at hann segði 136 Bj 22 173 when the outlaws who were 194 belti honum, þá er skógarmenn œ staying with Steinolf left for f ri til skips, their ship. 207 Erb 44 undir belti; 120 under his belt. 347 belti 138 Bj 25 ok gyrði hann at útan 177 and he belted it firmly 197 gyrða Then the belt on Einar from Þá gekk í sundr bróklindi Lon's breeches came apart, Lón-Einars, ok er hann tók 28 Brð 6 121 and when he clutched at his 245 lindi þar til, hjó Einarr hann breeches Einar dealt him his banahögg. death blow. 114 Bj 9 því líkar sem lindar væri, 133 which were like belts, 168 lindi ok er þat nú It is now the cincture of a set 123 Bj 9 messufatalindi í Gorðum á 134 of mass vestments at Gardar 169 lindi Akranesi. on Akraness. Nú býsk hann til hrossanna Now he made ready to go to 146 Bj 32 ok hefir manskæri mikli á 197 the horses, and had the large 211 lindi linda mane-shears at his belt, Ok meðan þeir rœddusk unfastened the mane-shears þetta við, þá leysti Björn from his belt. They had just manskæri af linda sér, ok 151 Bj 32 201 been sharpened before he 213 lindi váru þau nýhvǫtt, er hann came out, and were both fór heiman, bæði mikil ok large and keen. bitrlig. with a rope of hide around svarðre 39 Brð 8 ok hafði svarðreip um sik. 127 247 his waist. ip with a walrus-hide rope svarðre 44 Brð 9 ok svarðreip um sik 129 248 around him, ip Table 33. ​Belti ​, g​ yrða ​, ​lindi ​ and ​svarðreip ​ in ​Snæfellingasögur. The terms b​ elti and l​ indi, i​ n addition to the verb ​gyrða i​ n relation to clothing4, seem to be interchangeable in S​ næfellingasögur ​. B​ elti is mentioned twice, once in B​ jarnar saga 4 The phrase ​gyrðr sverði ​is used three times in S​ næfellingasögur​, and perhaps even this instance could be interpreted as in relation to weaponry rather than clothing. 57 and once in E​ yrbyggja saga ​. L​ indi is mentioned once in B​ árðar saga, and four times in Bjarnar saga. F​ our out of the six instances denote unique items. CV (1874: 57) claim that ​belti is used primarily for women’s belts, yet the examples in S​ næfellingasögur only include men’s belts. The term ​gyrða ​occurs once in B​ jarnar saga ​. The belts seem to occur in violent situations, and there is no shortage of battles in the sagas. In B​ jarnar saga, c​ h. 22, Björn bribes a man with a knife and a belt ( ​belti)​ in exchange for telling him when the outlaws Thord has been helping are on the move. Björn pursues the outlaws and kills them. In ch. 25, Björn is wearing a ​blár kápa​, which he belts ( ​gyrða)​ firmly before drawing his sword in order to fight Thord and his men, who have ambushed him. Björn wears and then unfastens mane shears from his belt (l​ indi)​ when he is engaged in his last battle, in ch. 32. The single instance in which l​ indi is mentioned in B​ jarnar saga is the garter Björn has unwittingly exchanged with King Ólaf Tryggvason in ch. 9. They are first compared to belts ( ​sém lindi​), then it said that the garter was later excavated and recycled as part of the vestments (​messufatalindi ​) in Akranes. The single occurrence in ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 44, is part of Steinthór’s description just before the fierce battle, already discussed in 5.2.9 and 2.1. The term ​lindi ​appears once in B​ árðar saga ​, ch. 6 as part of the compound b​ róklindi ​, trouser belt. There is a fight between two Einars, one of whom has been equipped with a newly made k​ yrtill by his mother, and after Einar has “called on Bard for victory” (B​ ard’s Saga ​1997: 245), the other Einar’s trouser belt gives in, he is hampered by trying to keep his trousers up, and is killed. Another, more humble type of belt, the ​svarðreip​, is mentioned twice in B​ árðar saga ​, and these are the only examples of this term in ​Snæfellingasögur ​. Both times, it is mentioned along with the humble ​grár kufl Bárd is wearing (see 5.2.5 for further discussion). There are at least three more examples of s​ varðreip i​ n Í​ slendingasögur.​ One of them is in I​ lluga saga Tagldarbana,​ ch. 1, where Illugi is first seen in a grubby state, including the walrus hide rope around his waist (‘​Maðr þessi var gyrðr svarðreipi’​). 58 A ​svarðreip ​is also mentioned in the late K​ róka-Refs saga ​, worn on a ​blár kufl. T​ he blue cowl is exceptional, as no other ​kufl i​ n Í​ slendingasögur s​ eems to be dyed. Interestingly enough, he uses the k​ ufl ​and s​ varðreip t​ o disguise himself as an Icelander. In addition, Gísli in ​Gísla saga Súrssonar is said to have worn his ​grey ​kufl f​ astened with a rope ( ​reip​). (Database text search, Sagadb.org source texts) Gisla saga dates to the 13th century (T​ he Icelandic Sagas 2002: 11), but both ​Bárðar saga and K​ róka-Refs saga are late, 14th century sagas (ÍF XIII: XCVIII-XCIX; Björn Sigfússon 1981: 396), with ​Illuga saga b​ eing of even later origin. That might perhaps mean that ​svarðreip ​became more common or even identified with the poor and therefore we see this image reflected in the late saga literature. 5.3.3. Footwear No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item Konungr fekk honum The king gave him forty pairs 54 Brð 18 fjörutigi járnskó, ok váru 162 of iron shoes that were lined 262 skó dyndir innan. with down. They then put on the iron Tóku þeir þá járnskó þá, er 57 Brð 19 164 shoes that king had given 263 skó konungr hafði fengit þeim: them. En er allir höfðu tekit When they had all put on the skóna nema Jósteinn shoes except Jostein the 58 Brð 19 164 263 skó prestr, gengu þeir á priest, they ventured onto hraunit. the lava field. ok var því vafit frá skó ok laced up from the shoe to til knés, ok hǫfdu þat the knee. The better men 115 Bj 9 jafnan helztu mennok 133 and the nobility always wore 168 skó tignir; ok þat sama hafði them, and the king and Bjorn konungr ok Bjǫrn. did the same. The Kjalleklings announced at þeir myndi eigi troða that they would not wear 158 Erb 9 skó til at ganga þar í útsker 15 out their shoes going to an 286 skó til álfreka. offshore skerry for their needs. he had ice-spurs on his skóbro 212 Erb 45 hann var á skóbroddum; 127 351 shoes. ddr en Freystein stóð fast á Freystein held his footing skóbro 214 Erb 45 skóbroddonum ok hjó 128 with his ice-spurs and struck 352 ddr bæði hart ok tíðum. hard and often. því at skóklæði þeira váru for their shoes and socks skóklæ 141 Bj 27 185 20 frørin, ok máttu þeir eigi ór were frozen so that they ði 59 komask, er engi var eldinn could not get them off, as no gǫrr; fire was kindled. Ok er hann vildi stíga yfir But when he went to step þreskǫdinn, þá sté hann á 203 Erb 43 117 across the door-sill he trod 345 skúfr þvengrjaskúfinn, þann er on the trailing tassell, dragnaði; Egill hafði skúfaða He was wearing shoes with 201 Erb 43 skóþvengi, sem þá var siðr 117 tasselled thongs, as people 345 þvengr til, did in those days, ok hafði losnat annarr and one of the thongs had 202 Erb 43 þvengrinn, ok dragnaði 117 become undone, and the 345 þvengr skúfrinn; tassel trailed behind him. Table 34. ​Skó, skóbroddr, skóklæði, skúfr ​and ​þvengr i​ n ​Snæfellingasögur. Shoes ( ​skó ​) and parts of shoes are mentioned 12 times in total in the S​ næfellingasögur ​, are included in six episodes, but never mentioned as a part of a description of dress, rather always to assist in exemplifying or characterising behaviour. Conflict arises in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ ch. 9, when the Kjalleklings announce “ ​at þeir myndi eigi troða skó”​ (‘that they would not wear out their shoes’) by leaving the meeting to relieve themselves on a skerry. How many shoes are worn out during the half century of feuding that is covered in the next 56 chapters, is not mentioned. Parts of shoes warrant some further attention in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ chs. 43 and 45. In ch. 43, the slave Egil Sterki is promised freedom by his master’s sons if he kills one of the Breiðvíkings. Egil is instructed to sneak into the dwelling under cover of smoke, but his attire fails him. It is said that ‘[h]e was wearing shoes with tasselled thongs, as people did in those days’, implying that ​skúfaða skóþvengr ​ had gone out of fashion. This is one of the few instances in which the saga author felt the need to make clear the historical circumstances surrounding dress (another such reflexion concerns the garter Björn exchanges with Ólaf Tryggvason in B​ jarnar saga,​ for further discussion, see 5.3.4). Roscoe (1992: 147) poses a question concerning this episode: “How reliable is the writer’s knowledge of the customs of this period? Is he relying on tradition or is he merely reinforcing his description of Egill’s thongs in order to add verisimilitude to the anecdote concerning the slave’s mishap?” In any case, the tasseled thong has become undone, catches on the threshold and Egil lands on the floor with ‘a great thud as though the carcass of a skinned bull had been 60 thrown to the floor’. Egil is caught and killed by the Breiðvíkings. In ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 45, where among others, Freystein and Steinthór fight, Freistein has already been saved from a fatal blow by his hood (see 5.2.6 above). Freystein has a further advantage as he is said to be wearing ice spurs ( ​skóbroddr​), but he is still vanquished: “Steinthór kept losing his balance because the slabs of ice were steep and slippery, while Freystein held his footing with his ice-spurs and struck hard and often. The fight ended when Steinthór got in a blow with his sword just above Freystein’s hips and sliced him in two.” (E​ yrbyggja saga,​ ch. 45) The instances of ​skó a​ nd ​skóklæði (​ a common noun for shoes and stockings, according to CV (1874: 556) in ​Bjarnar saga ​are rather in passing. The historic fashion of wearing garters is explained in ch. 9. In ch. 27, as part of the description of the sorry state of Björn’s guests on their first night there, it is said that their s​ kóklæði were frozen and would not come off. The most remarkable example of shoes, both in its depth and nature, comes from Bárðar saga,​ when in ch. 18 the king equips Gest for his quest to find the treasures of king Raknar. The king gives Gest forty pairs of iron shoes lined with down, two magicians, a priest called Jostein, a short sword, a length of cloth to wrap himself in when entering the mound, a candle, and provisions to last three seasons. Needless to say every item on the list proves indispensable during the trip. In ch. 19, the crew reaches “enormous stretches of burnt lava” and every man, bearing their own portion of the provisions, puts on a pair of shoes, but it turns out that there is one pair fewer than there are men, and the priest Jostein is left with bare feet. Soon, he is left unable to walk, but when Gest asks: “”Which of you fellows will help this scribbler to make it off the mountain?” No one spoke up because each thought he had enough to cope with.” ( ​Bard’s saga ​1997: 263) Gest bears the priest - whom he does not like, but of whom the king had spoken highly - himself and is said to have walked the fastest. The iron shoes themselves are a rather peculiar motif. Leather and hide have always been the preferred material for shoes, but apparently the durability of iron is at the 61 forefront in this case. It is difficult to imagine what these shoes might have looked like or to what extent the down lining eased the roughness and rigidity of the shoes. The shoes are part of a fantastic tale placed in a setting far removed from the narrator’s and therefore detailing the practicalities was of less importance. 5.3.4. Leg coverings No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Item 149 Bj 32 ok var í hosum 199 and was wearing hose, 212 hosa En þat var mǫnnum þá títt, It was customary then for 113 Bj 9 133 168 reima at hafa reimar, men to wear cross-garters, at Bjǫrn hafði skipt um that he had exchanged reimarnar við konung, ok cross-garters with the king. sagði honum þegar til He told him at once of his 120 Bj 9 vanhyggju sinnar; en 134 mistake but the king let it 168 reima konungr skipaði kyrrt vera rest, and said that the one ok kvað þá eigi verri, er he was wearing was no hann hafði. worse. Bjǫrn hafði ávallt þessa Bjorn always wore this reim um fót sinn, á meðan cross-garter around his leg 121 Bj 9 134 169 reima hann lifði, ok með henni for as long as he lived, and var hann niðr grafinn. with it he was buried. And much later, when his Ok þá miklu siðar, er bein bones were taken up and hans váru upp tekin ok moved to another church, fœrð til annarrar kirkju, þá that same cross-garter 122 Bj 9 134 169 reima var sú in sama ræma ófúin remained uncorrupted um fótlegg Bjarnar, en allt around Bjorn's leg-bone, var annat fúit, although everything else was decayed. ok vafit silkiræmu um fót and bound around his leg sér, þeiri hann hafði skipt was the silk cross-garter he 150 Bj 32 199 212 reima um við inn helga Óláf had got in the exchange with konung. the blessed King Olaf. ok ræmunni, sem fyrr var and the cross-garter, as was 155 Bj 33 207 217 reima sagt. said before. Table 35. R​ eima ​ and ​hosa ​ in ​Snæfellingasögur. Two types of leg coverings are mentioned in the ​Snæfellingasögur - garters ( ​reima)​ and hose ( ​hosa ​). Despite the number of occurrences, only a single garter and pair of hose are mentioned, all in ​Bjarnar saga.​ The garter seems not to be worn at the time of writing (or at least its communicative value has changed), because the garter is 62 introduced with the words ‘it was customary then’. The story about Björn and King Ólaf exchanging garters would seem to allude to silk garters being beyond the means or position of Björn, although the king graciously says “that the one he was wearing was no worse” ( ​The Saga of Bjorn ​2002: 169). The garter is, if the story is to be believed, infused with the holiness of King Olaf because it is said to have been uncorrupted after the death and decomposition of Björn and ultimately recycled as part of the vestments in Akranes (see 5.3.4 for further discussion). Björn is said to wear a tunic, hose and the silk garter when he goes to the final battle of his life in ch. 32 of ​Bjarnar saga.​ The hose ( ​hosa ​) were stocking-like leg coverings sewn from woven fabric and secured around the leg with a garter. These were fundamentally different from the l​ eistabrók mentioned in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ ch. 45 (see 5.2.13 for details). However, as the garter has been identified as a past fashion (#113), the questions whether hose were a Viking Age garment and whether the hose and the garters were worn together, remain still. 5.3.5. Bags No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Item she took out a sealskin bag ok tok selbelg, er hon hafði œ she had brought with her 184 Erb 20 með sér, ok f rði hann á 53 307 selbelg ǫ ǫ and pulled it over Katla's h fuð K tlu; head. "Hvárt selda ek þér sjóð 'Did I not give you a 164 Erb 14 ǫ 25 292 sjóð n kkurn á hausti?" money-purse last autumn?' "Já," segir Þorbrandr ok brá 'Yes,' said Throbrand, and 165 Erb 14 25 292 sjóð sjóðnum produced the purse ok festi á hurðarklofann and nailed to it a purse 208 Erb 44 sjóð þann, er í váru tólf 121 containing twelve ounces of 347 sjóð aurar silfrs. silver. Table 36. Bags in ​Snæfellingasögur. There are two types of bag mentioned in the ​Snæfellingasögur, both in ​Eyrbyggja saga.​ One is the sealskin bag that Geirrid pulls over Katla’s head in ch. 20 to keep her from producing further illusions. 63 Both of the ​sjóð, i​ n chs. 14 and 44 are simply vessels for money. The one in ch. 14 is concealed under a k​ ápa and is revealed from under it (this has been discussed in 5.2.1). 5.4. Other textiles 5.4.1. Bed furnishings Bed furnishings occur in three of the S​ næfellingasögur and are completely absent from Bjarnar saga ​. Most of the furnishings occur in E​ yrbyggja saga,​ chs. 50-55, where the story of Thórgunna is recounted. Some references are included in 5.1. No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item 240 Erb 50 ok allan ársalinn með; 138 and a full canopy as well. 357 ársall and the canopy, but neither ok ársalinn allan, ok 258 Erb 51 143 of them was really easy 360 ársall líkaði þó hváringu vel. about the outcome. ok gægðisk upp á and it stared up at 263 Erb 53 147 362 ársall ársalinn Þórgunnu. Thórgunna's bed-canopy. hann gaf þau ráð til, at he advised them to burn the 264 Erb 55 brenna skyldi ársal 151 canopy from Thórgunna's 365 ársall Þórgunnu, bed He pulled down Thórgunna's Kjartan tók ofan ársalinn bed-furnishings and then Þórgunnu, gekk siðan í 267 Erb 55 151 went into the fire-hall and 365 ársall eldaskála, tók glóð af eldi plucked a brand from the fire ok gekk út með; and went outside with it; with the curtain drawn 29 Brð 7 ok hafði fortjald fyrir. 123 245 fortjald before her ok eina nótt forvitnaðist and one night he looked 30 Brð 7 124 246 fortjald hann undir tjaldit; under the bed curtain. Hann lyptir upp 100 Vgl 22 109 So he lifted up the curtains 262 fortjald fortjaldinu; hon tók ór ǫrkinni then she took from the chest 239 Erb 50 138 357 rekkjurefil rekkjurefil bed-curtains Í einni sæng lágu þau The two lay together in one 96 Vgl 20 bæði saman; eitt sparlak 103 bed; one blanket covered 257 sparlak var þar fyrir. them. Table 37. Bed furnishings in S​ næfellingasögur. It is remarkable that the bed furnishings are always mentioned in relation to women - the mystery around Helga in B​ árðar saga and Thórgunna in E​ yrbyggja saga is centred on their beds. In V​ íglundar saga ​, f​ ortjald are used to first explain the arrangement of 64 Ketilrid’s marriage and then to set the scene for the planned killing of Ketilrid’s husband by Viglund. Eyrbyggja saga is purported to originate from the first half of 13th century (see 3.2 above), yet Frances Pritchard (2003: 363) states that bed curtains and canopies were only introduced in rich households in northern Europe at the end of the 13th century. The late origin of these textiles might be mirrored in ​Íslendingasögur ​by the fact that bed furnishings are rare in the corpus: a text search revealed only two more instances of ​fortjald and no other examples of s​ parlak, w​ hile the other terms are specific to Eyrbyggja saga​. Sparlak, although translated as ‘blanket’ ( ​Viglund’s saga ​2002: 257), was actually ‘a curtain’ (CV 1874: 581). Marta Hoffmann (1983: 365) adds that á​ rsall was replaced by sparlak ​in the 14th century, which confirms the dating of ​Eyrbyggja saga ​and ​Víglundar saga.​ R​ ekkjurefill ​might not have been a curtain, but a valance or a bedskirt (Hoffmann 1983: 365). No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page breiddi hon yfir rekkjuna enskar 237 Erb 50 138 She spread fine English sheets 357 blæjur 257 Erb 51 ok blæjur 143 the bed-curtains 360 Table 38. ​Blæja ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. Sheets are mentioned twice in E​ yrbyggja saga,​ although curiously enough, on the second occasion, they are rendered as ‘bed curtains’, despite the fact that Thuríd is said to have taken ‘the quilt, the bed curtains and the canopy’ ( ​Eyrbyggja saga 1​ 999: 360), i.e. the hangings are already mentioned. The ‘fine English sheets’ are deemed very precious on their revealation, suggesting that English linen (or some grades of it) was more precious than locally produced sheets. Hoffmann (1983: 360) maintains that the word is a cognate of Middle High German ​blahe​, meaning coarse linen. (This means that the cloth had a lower thread count, not that it was of a lower quality or uneven.) Hoffmann further states that ​blæja was used to cover the body and sometimes showed from under the coverlet (1983: 360), but it is safe to assume that these were used both under and over the body as 65 Thórgunna is said to have laid out several sheets. For those who could afford bed clothes, wool sheets seem to have been much more common (Hoffmann 1983: 357). No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item þó at vit höfum haft eitt even though we shared one 104 Vgl 23 115 266 áklæði áklæði coverlet. sótti hon þá svá fast, at She pleaded with him so hard honum gekksk hur við, ok that he changed his mind; the 254 Erb 51 143 360 dýna kom þessu máli svá, at upshot was that Thórodd Þóroddr brenndi dýnur burned the eiderdown and a silken quilt over the 238 Erb 50 ok silkikult; 138 357 kult bed; 256 Erb 51 en hon tók til sin kult 143 while Thuríð took the quilt, 360 kult Table 39. Bed covers in ​Snæfellingasögur​. There are only two coverlets mentioned in S​ næfellingasögur ​, one in ​Eyrbyggja saga, chs. 50 and 51 (k​ ult​) and one in ​Víglundar saga,​ chs. 20 and 23. The coverlet in Víglundar saga is referred to both as s​ parlak ​and as á​ klæði.​ Á​ klæði w​ as possibly an imported item (Hoffmann 1983: 363). Based on the database text search none of these terms occur elsewhere in the Icelandic sagas. The ​dýnur in ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 51 probably describes a down mattress, which Thórgunna refers to, among other items, in ch. 50 when Thuríd offers to buy the bed clothes: “Thórgunna replied, ‘I am not going to lie on straw for your sake no matter how refined and lady-like you are.’” (E​ yrbyggja saga 1​ 999: 358). This suggests that eiderdown was hard to come by, even for vain mistresses of large households. This is verified by Marta Hoffmann (1983: 357-358), who says domestic birds were not common in Scandinavia in the Middle Ages and that down bolsters are rare in inventories. Hoffmann adds that ​dýna ​could also mean a cushion or pillow. Pag No. Saga Ch. Old Norse English Page e Stóð hon þá upp af She got up from the dais and lifted 182 Erb 20 pallinum ok tók hœgindin 53 the cushions on which she had been 307 undan sér; sitting. 255 Erb 51 ok hœgendi, 143 and pillows, 360 Table 40. ​Hœgendi ​ in ​Snæfellingasögur.​ Pillows are mentioned twice in S​ næfellingasögur ​, both instances are in ​Eyrbyggja saga ​. Apparently pillows were used both in beds and to sit upon. Hoffmann (1983: 359) 66 confirms this by adding that ​hœgendi ​“is often mentioned in connection with a costly case”, which could well hold true for Thórgunna’s finery. 5.4.2. Tents No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page 105 Bj 4 Var þar skotit tjaldi yfir Bjǫrn, 121 Then a tent was pitched over Bjorn 160 112 Bj 9 en tjaldat var yfir laugina. 133 a tent was pitched over the bath. 168 Þeir bera búnað sinn af skipi They carried their gear ashore and 125 Bj 10 135 169 ok reisa tjǫld sín. pitched their tent. en þar var tjaldat yfir but Bergthór was taken care of for 220 Erb 46 131 353 Bergþóri um nóttina. the night in a tent en rekkju mína ok rekkjutjald but I want my bed and all its vil ek láta brenna í eldi, því at furnishings to be burned to ashes, 248 Erb 51 142 359 þat mu engum manni at for they will bring no good to nytjum verða; anyone. Table 41. ​Tjald ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. The tents pitched in ​Snæfellingasögur seem to have different purposes: in ​Eyrbyggja saga, ​ch. 46, and in B​ jarnar saga ​, ch. 10, they are used as accommodation, whereas in Bjarnar saga ​, ch. 4, it is used as a makeshift hospital that is pitched over Björn because he has suffered too many wounds to be moved. In the fourth instance, a tent is used to cover the bath where King Ólaf and his men bathe. 5.5. Materials 5.5.1. Leather No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Material ok skar rauf á húð ok Thorir cut a slit in a hide and 9 Brð 3 110 240 húð hafði þat fyrir hlíf; used it as protection því var hann leðrháls and because of that was 10 Brð 3 110 240 leðr kallaðr. called Leather-neck. ok tok selbelg, er hon she took out a sealskin bag 184 Erb 20 hafði með sér, ok fœrði 53 she had brought with her and 307 sel hann á hǫfuð Kǫtlu; pulled it over Katla's head. ok var sveinninn vafinn í the boy was swaddled in seal 6 Brð 3 108 240 skinn selaskinnum til skjóls skins for warmth. var vanr at hafa yfir sér accustomed to have a great einn skinnfeld stóran, ok fur cloak over him 35 Brð 8 126 247 skinn var hann þar í skipinu hjá honum; 67 Nú er at segja frá To return to Arnkel's slaves: þrælum Arnkels, at þeir they went inside when they gengu inn, þá er þeir 191 Erb 37 ǫ 102 had finished carrying in the 336 skinn h fðu inn borit heyit, ok ǫ hay, and took off their fóru af skinnst kkum leather work-clothes. sínum. ok hafði svarðreip um with a rope of hide around 39 Brð 8 127 247 svörðr sik. his waist. with a walrus-hide rope 44 Brð 9 ok svarðreip um sik 129 248 svörðr around him, Table 42. Usage of leather in Snæfellingasögur excluding names with ​skinn. Of the materials mentioned in S​ næfellingasögur ​, leather is the most prolific. Different kinds of leather and fur warrant eight mentions in two sagas, ​Eyrbyggja saga and Bárðar saga ​. Three of the instances refer to name giving, all in B​ árðar saga.​ Thorkel Skin-swathed is said to have been swaddled in seal skins upon his birth and thereby got his nickname (Bard’s saga: 240, see further discussion in 5.5.2). He is named a further eight times in Bárðar saga ​ and twice more in ​Víglundar saga​ (see table below). Thorir leðrhals is told to have fashioned himself a hood or cloak out of a cow hide (CV 1874: 293 specifically states ​húð t​ o be from cattle) (B​ ard’s saga:​ 240-241). It is noteworthy that the ​húð ​transforms into ​leðr ​in the process. Leather from sea creatures does not end with Thorkel’s swaddling clothes: a sealskin bag is mentioned in E​ yrbyggja saga,​ ch. 20 and Bárd is said in chs. 8 and 9 of B​ árðar saga to have worn a walrus hide rope around his waist after his retreat from the society. The rare mention of working clothes, s​ kinnstakkr,​ in ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 37 includes leather. I have argued above in 5.2.13, that even the slave woman accompanying Bárd on his journey out to Iceland might have got her name from her work clothes. The remaining instance of s​ kinn concerns the lucky fisherman Ingvald in ​Bárðar saga ​, ch. 8. This is probably the only fur garment in ​Snæfellingasögur.​ Yet, there is mention of Skin-Björn in ​Bárðar saga ​, ch. 5. CV (1874: 547) list the origin of the name: 68 “Skinna-björn, a nickname, from fur-trading in Russia (Hólmgarðr), see Landn. 3, ch. 1.” The case of Skinnhúfa has been discussed above in 5.3.1. Not included in the list is another interesting episode in ​Bárðar saga ​ concerning a bearskin used in hörnuskinnaleik ​ (IF XIII 144). No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page 3 Brð 3 Skinnbrók 108 Skin-breeches 240 Þorkell hét ok var kallaðr Thorkel who was called 4 Brð 3 108 240 skinnvefja Skin-swathed ok því var hann kallaðr Þorkell he was called Thorkel 8 Brð 3 108 240 skinnvefja. Skin-swathed. 13 Brð 4 Þorkell skinnvefja 112 Thorkel Skin-swathed 241 14 Brð 4 Skinnbrók 113 Skin-breeches 241 15 Brð 4 Skinnbrók 113 Skinnbrok 241 Þá var sá maðr á vist með Eiríki, With Eirik was a man named 20 Brð 5 er Skeggi hét Skinna-Bjarnarson, 115 Skeggi Skin-Bjorn's son, son of 242 Skútaðar-Skeggjasonar. Skutad-Skeggi. 26 Brð 6 Þorkatli skinnvefju 119 Thorkel Skin-swathed 244 Óvættr ein, er Torfár-Kolla hét, There was an evil spirit named 41 Brð 9 en Skinnhúfa öðru nafni, hon 128 Kolla of Torfa, known also as 247 átti heima at Knausum; Skin-cap; she lived at Hnausar. 46 Brð 10 Þorkel skinnvefju 133 Thorkel Skin-swathed 249 49 Brð 10 Þorkell skinnvefja 136 Thorkel Skin-swathed 250 52 Brð 13 Þorkell skinnvefja 142 Thorkel Skin-swathed 253 53 Brð 13 Þorkell skinnvefja 144 Thorkel Skin-swathed 253 82 Vgl 12 Þorkell skinnvefja 84 Thorkel Skin-swathed 241 Table 43. Names in ​Snæfellingasögur​ containing ​skinn. There is another mention of ​skinn ​ in ​Bárðar saga, ​ch. 13 (ÍF XIII: 144-145), where the men start a ​hornaskinnleik ​, which is played by men throwing a ​bjarnfeld einn stóran​ (a large bearskin - author’s translation) around. According to the footnote in the edition, this game is only known from this episode. 69 5.5.2. ​Wool No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Material Han hafði verit í He was wearing a felt hood flókahettu, ok saumat í with a piece of horn sewn 213 Erb 45 128 352 flóki horn um hálsinn, ok kom into the collar, where the þar í hǫggit. blow had landed. þar er mjök var illt til It was difficult to come by 5 Brð 3 108 240 vaðmál vaðmála, homespun cloth there In his baggage were three Í bagga hans váru þrjú 193 Erb 39 105 hundred ells of homespun 337 vaðmál hundruð vaðmála cloth Table 44. Wool in ​Snæfellingasögur. Wool is mentioned thrice in ​Snæfellingasögur:​ twice in E​ yrbyggja saga and once in Bárðar saga ​. In E​ yrbyggja saga, ​ch. 45 it is said that Freystein has a piece of horn sewn into the collar of his felt hood. This is a single instance in both ​Snæfellingasögur and Íslendingasögur,​ according to a database search. Vaðmál ​, which was crucial to the Icelandic economy, is only mentioned twice, and is rendered in English as ‘homespun’. All manner of clothing and textiles, be it sails, work clothes, or fine silks, were, by definition, handmade before the modern era. The fact that women worked at home, does not justify using a potentially dismissive term - Icelandic ​vaðmál ​was a highly standardised product (Hayeur Smith 2015: 33-34), which was the source of the wealth of many merchants, both native and foreign. Zanchi (2007: 102-106) uses the same cutting remark: the chapter on ​vaðmál ends the section on precious clothing and is titled “On the other end of the scale”, clearly indicating this author’s perception that ​vaðmál ​was of inferior quality. Certainly, it was not coveted or admired as were the ​silkikult o​ r the ​skarlatsskikkja,​ but this does not mean it was resented - this was the default clothing material, after all. This also does not leave room for the fact that v​ aðmál was probably made in several qualities - if not for sale, then for domestic consumption. Spinners and weavers who can produce uniform cloth by the metre to specification are certainly able to adjust their processes to other needs. 70 There is a direct link between a man’s fortune and wool in ​Eyrbyggja saga. I​ n ch. 39, Arnbjörn arrives at the ship at the last minute, carrying three hundred ells of v​ aðmál ​, twelve ​vararfeldir,​ and food for the voyage (ÍF IV: 105, ​Eyrbyggja saga 1999: 337). He later arrives back on Iceland, is said to be ​engi áburðarmaðr ​(‘no dandy’), but is still able to ride to the assembly in coloured clothing. One can assume that his fortune was made (or at least the begun) using the cloth and the sheepskins or cloaks (see 5.2.2 for discussion). One ounce of silver was worth 24 ells of ​vaðmál according to the footnote in ÍF IV (25). Therefore we can assume that Arnbjörn had with him v​ áðmál w​ orth 12.5 ounces of silver, although this was in local currency. The ​vararfeldr w​ ere set by law to cost two ounces (Jochens 1995: 155), so that adds 24 ounces of silver to the value of Arnbjörn’s baggage. These items were probably worth a lot more abroad. However, it is stated that he is carrying all of it on his own. The weight of the bale can be calculated given that ● legal ​vaðmál ​ was two ells wide (98.4 cm) (Hayeur Smith 2015: 30-31), ● the archeological finds from Iceland are woven at around 8-12 warp threads per centimetre and 4-10 weft threads per cm (Hayeur Smith 2015: 33), ● warp density of 12 ends per centimetre would require a thread with length to weight ratio 6500 metres per kilo (Andersson 1999: 9) (although this would be subject to change with wool type and twist density). If we take it the cloth measures 0.984 m by 177.12 m (300 ells x 12 x 0.492 m), and we operate on the notion that it was the finest type, i.e. 12 and 10 threads per centimetre, then there would be 1181 warp threads, which would total in 209 178.72 m of warp threads, and 177 120 picks, which would total in 177 120 m of weft thread. That is 386 298.72 m (which is to say, a little shy of 400 km) of thread in total, which at the given length to weight ratio would mean the bale (excluding the ​vararfeldir a​ nd the food for the voyage) would weigh 59.43 kilos, which would be probably be within the capabilities of the man. Also worth noting is that the weaving took place at a rate of 1-1.5 ells a day (Hoffmann 71 1964: 215-216), which would amount to a work of woman’s full year. Yet Andersson (1999: 9), while confirming the weaving time, reports that processing the fibre and spinning it are the most time-consuming of all the processes, whilst weaving takes the least time. This means that by a modest evaluation, Arnbjörn boarded the ship with at least three years’ worth of women’s work (this again excludes the ​vararfeldir,​ which would have taken more time to weave). It would have been hard to imagine a landscape without sheep in Mediaeval Iceland, yet such a place is in the author’s opinion referenced when the birthplace of Thorkell Skin-swathed is described. He is said to have been born north of Dumbshaf, i.e. North of Norway, and that “ ​þar er mjök var illt til vaðmála ​” (ÍF XIII: 108; #5). There are not many places where sheep cannot live and people can, and the Arctic is one of them. In support of this is the fact that the description of Thorkell is particularly elaborate and horrid, resembling the description of trolls, and in the opinion of Aðalheiður Guðmunsdóttir (2017: 336-337) these descriptions are actually based on the Sami people. 5.5.3. ​Linen No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Material Þat hǫfðu þau at sýslu Bjorn and his mother were þann dag, Bjǫrn ok móðir busy that day spreading out 127 Bj 11 hans, at þau breiddu niðr 137 170 lérept the linen that had been lérept ok þurrkuðu, er ǫ washed to dry. vát h fðu orðit. Líkit var sveipat The corpse was wrapped in a 259 Erb 51 líndúkum, en saumat eigi 143 linen shroud, but not sewed 360 lín um, ok síðan lagt í kistu; into it, and then coffined. Table 45. Linen in ​Snæfellingasögur. Linen is mentioned twice in S​ næfellingasögur.​ Once it is the material of Thórgunna’s shroud in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ ch. 51. The second time, Björn helps with spreading out the freshly washed linen or linen cloth to dry in B​ jarnar saga ​, ch. 11. Doing the washing was a female task (Zanchi 2007: 185-187), but given that performing inappropriate tasks is a subject of mockery in the saga, I would rather be inclined to think it was an 72 appropriate male task. In ch. 12 (T​ he Saga of Bjorn 2​ 002: ​172), Oddný suggests Thord should shovel muck from the sheep pens and is slapped by him; in ch. 16 ( ​The Saga of Bjorn 2​ 002: 181) Björn picks up a calf that is lying on the floor of the barn and Thord likens him to a midwife. Such reactions do not follow when Thord sees Björn spreading out the linen. Spreading out freshly and closely woven linen is a task that requires physical stamina as linen is heavy and tough to reshape when wet. Whether flax was grown in Iceland remains unknown because Zanchi (2007: 81) maintains on the basis of a research article that linseed has been discovered in Iceland and there are place names connected to flax and linen. Annika Larsson (2007: 265) references another article when saying the climate in Iceland is not suited for growing flax and there are no place names referring to flax or linen. 5.5.4. ​Silk No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Material Thord composed a drapa Þórðr orti drápu um Ólaf about King Olaf; then he konung; síðan fór hann ok œ went and recited it himself, f rði sjálfr ok þá af 106 Bj 7 127 and received from the king a 163 pell konungi gullhring ok gold ring, a silken tunic pellskyrtil hlaðbúinn ok trimmed with lace, and a fine sverð gott. sword. ok vafit silkiræmu um fót and bound around his leg sér, þeiri hann hafði skipt was the silk cross-garter he 150 Bj 32 199 212 silki um við inn helga Óláf had got in the exchange with konung. the blessed King Olaf. and a silken quilt over the 238 Erb 50 ok silkikult; 138 357 silki bed; Table 46. Silk in ​Snæfellingasögur. Silk, which was undeniably much rarer than wool, as a material for clothing, warrants the same number of mentions. The instances are limited to the two earlier sagas, Bjarnar saga and E​ yrbyggja saga. ​All of the items are imported: the tunic in ​Bjarnar saga ​, ch. 7, and the garter, which we have heard of several times before (see 5.3.3), is identified as being silk in ch. 32. The quilt in E​ yrbyggja saga ​, ch. 50, finds its way to Iceland with Thórgunna. 73 5.5.5. Iron No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page The king gave him forty pairs of Konungr fekk honum fjörutigi 54 Brð 18 162 iron shoes that were lined with 262 járnskó, ok váru dyndir innan. down. Tóku þeir þá járnskó þá, er They then put on the iron shoes 57 Brð 19 164 263 konungr hafði fengit þeim: that king had given them. Table 47. ​Járn ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. Iron is mentioned in connection with the shoes King Ólaf equips Gest with when he goes to retrieve the treasures of King Raknar. Iron would be a rather peculiar choice for shoes, as has already been discussed in 5.3.3. 5.5.6. The quality of cloth No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Material Bjǫrn skyldi hafa Bjorn was to have a tunic of 110 Bj 8 131 167 guðvefjar guðvefjarkyrtil precious cloth Bjorn gave Thorfinna a gold Þorfinnu gaf Bjǫrn ring and the costly woven gullhring ok tunic which King Olaf had guðvefjarkyrtil, er Óláfr given to Thord Kolbeinsson, 145 Bj 29 konungr hafði gefit Þórði 191 207 guðvefjar and which the king had given Kolbeinssyni, ok hann into Bjorn's possession after gerði til handa Birni eptir the robbery in the Branno rán í Brenneyjum. islands en af óskiptri minni eigu But before you divide up my 246 Erb 51 skal Þuríðr hafa 142 property, Thuríð is to have 359 skarlat skarlatsskikkju Þá, er ek á; the scarlet cloak I own. Ok nú um vetrinn eptra Then the next winter Bjorn var Bjǫrn í Nóregi, ok gaf stayed in Norway, and King Óláfr konungr honum Olaf gave him a finely made skikkju vandaða, ok hét cloak and promised him his honum sinni vináttu ok friendship, calling him an kallaði hann vera vaskan intrepid man and a fine 124 Bj 9 134 169 vandað mann ok góðan dreng. fellow. 74 Þorleif keypti þann hest, Thorleif bought the best er hann fekk beztan; horse he could find and had a hann hafði ok steindan ǫ magnificent coloured saddle; s ðul allglæsiligan, hann he carried an ornamented hafði búit sverð ok sword, a gold-inlaid spear 160 Erb 13 guldrekit spjót, myrkblán 23 291 vandað ǫ ǫ and a richly-gilded, dark-blue skj ld ok mj k ǫ ǫ shield. All his clothing was of gyldan,v nduð ll klæði; the finest quality; he had hann hafði þar ok til vart ǫ ǫ spent nearly all his travel mj k llum sínum money on his apparel. fararefnum; Table 48. The quality of cloth in ​Snæfellingasögur. The quality of the cloth is mentioned only a handful of times in ​Snæfellingasögur,​ but nevertheless the vocabulary is specialised, even if it does not go into further detail. Skarlat ​is included in this section because it has been a precious cloth, the colour of which was in part achieved using kermes (Munro 2003: 212-213, see 5.6.4 for further discussion). Again, as with silk, none of the items included in this section are locally produced. On the matter of g​ uðvefjar​, Zanchi (2007: 74) comments that, “The fabric must have been so highly prized as to be accepted even in its second-hand state.” This statement is a completely modern one: people are used to the consistent onslaught of new clothing, leaving no room for the notion that new cloth and clothing in itself was precious (the only newly made garments in S​ næfellingasögur ​are the impenetrable tunics). This also does not take into account the importance of clothing gifts in Íslendigasögur (on which Zanchi (2007) has written a whole section). The clothing gifts are prolific in ​Snæfellingasögur as well, and are never turned down, rather the opposite. 5.6. Colours Clothing colours could up to the second half of the 19th century be derived from two sources - the natural colour of the fibre, or natural dyes. If a textile was dyed, then this was a considerable feat and was certainly reflected in the cost of the item (somebody needed to put in the hours, even if the item was homemade), because the dyestuff needed to be gathered or cultivated, processed (this takes elaborate composting in the 75 case of woad ( ​Isatis tinctoria ​), the Mediaeval source of blue, for example), the fibre, yarn or cloth needed to be mordanted in most cases, and only then could the textile be dyed. The scarcity of dyed clothing (as well as imported clothing) in Iceland is confirmed by archaeological records (Hayeur Smith 2015: 26, 37). Yet, in the case of landrace sheep such as the Icelandic sheep, the fleece colour varies considerably from bright white to black with many shades of grey and brown in between. Even the black can have either a cool (veering towards dark grey) or a warm (veering towards dark brown) grey. Apparently, modern Icelandic distinguishes even between ​hvít and ​gul ​in ​sauðalítir ​(Bændasamtök Íslands: Íslenskt sauðfe). Robson and Ekarius (2011: 169) remark on the palette of the Icelandic sheep: “If you want an exercise in studying color genetics, Icelandic sheep will give it to you.” Using different colours of fleece would have been the most economical way to produce a variety of shading in cloth, giving shades that differ enough to warrant striping or patterning. In addition, the coloured fleeces could have been dyed, which gives a different range of hues, and in the case of mid-greys helps achieve depth of colour while using less dyestuff. Another matter, however, would be linen. The natural colour of the flax fibre is light grey or light brown depending on the retting method, linen is bleached (either chemically or by exposing it to sunlight) to become white, and cellulose-based fibres were more difficult to dye than protein-based fibres. Therefore, the whitest of white was the hue that was the most coveted. 5.6.1. ​​Hvítr No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Siðan andaðist Gestr í Afterwards Gest died, still in his 61 Brð 21 170 265 hvítavaðum. baptismal clothes. Table 49. ​Hvít i​ n ​Snæfellingasögur. The single instance in which h​ vít is mentioned in relation to clothing comes with Gest’s death in B​ árðar saga ​, ch. 21. Gest is said to have died in h​ vítavaðum,​ baptismal clothes, which were worn for a week after baptism (Roscoe 1992: 88). According to 76 both Roscoe (1992: 88-101) and Zanchi (2007: 116-117), white clothing is rarely mentioned in Í​ slendingasögur,​ and according to Roscoe (1992: 101), the imagery is often influenced by Christianity. However, Zanchi (2007: 116-117) seems to think in line with Valtýr Guðmundsson (1892: 187), that white ​vaðmál would have been “the simplest, and most economical” (Zanchi 2007: 116) type of cloth, and that the low status of white cloth was derived “from the fact that white clothes could be easily stained, and were thus not an appropriate material for a chieftain’s or free man’s garments” (Zanchi 2007: 117). This goes squarely against the facts that white linen has been greatly appreciated, that given the natural variety of ​sauðalítir​, white wool was less common in Icelandic sheep than the modern audience (who are used to representation of white sheep) might think, and that chieftains and free men could afford to have impractical clothes (a silken tunic is no less practical when mucking out the barn than white clothes). 5.6.2. ​Grár ​and ​móbrúnn No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page 38 Brð 8 hann var í grám kufli 127 He was in a grey cowl 247 43 Brð 9 at hann var í grám kufli 129 in a grey cowl 248 45 Brð 10 sá var hann í grám kufli 133 He was in a grey cowl 249 50 Brð 11 ok var í grám kufli 139 wearing a grey cowl 251 Table 50. ​Grár ​in S​ næfellingasögur. The instances of ​grár ​in S​ næfellingasögur are all limited to B​ árðar saga ​. Bárd is, after his retreat from society, synonymous with his ​grár kufl,​ which can be taken to mean a sauðalítir​. However, as has been argued in 5.2.5, this was a voluntary choice. G​ rár relating to textiles seems to be limited to a handful of occurrences in the Icelandic sagas (Wolf 2009: 233). No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page En þeir kómu í Holt til Kǫtlu, When they arrived at Holt, Katla fœrdi hon Odd, son sinn, í kyrtil dressed her son Odd in a 169 Erb 18 34 297 móbrúnan, er hon hafði þá dark-brown tunic she had just nýgǫrt. made. Table 51. ​Móbrún ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. 77 There is a single instance of ​móbrúnn ​in ​Snæfellingasögur. ​This was certainly a natural sheep colour rather than a dyed one. 5.6.3. ​​Blár ​and ​svartr No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page hann hafði bláflekkótta he wore a blue-spotted cape 56 Brð 18 skautheklu ok kneppta niðr í 163 with a hood, which buttoned all 262 milli fóta sér. the way down to his feet. Í þessu kom maðr í stofuna At this moment a man dressed 77 Vgl 8 bláklæddr ok helt á brugðnu 78 in black walked into the room; 237 sverði. he was holding a drawn sword. en inn bláklæddi maðr var Ólof the man in black was Olof 78 Vgl 8 78 236 sjálf. herself. hann reið einn saman í blári 126 Bj 11 136 He rode alone in a black cloak. 170 kápu. She broke into speech: 'There is Hon tók til orða: "Maðr riðr a man riding there,' she said, 'in þar," segir hon, "í blári kápu ok a black cloak, looking very like 128 Bj 11 er alllíkr Þórði Kolbeinssyni, ok 137 170 Thord Kolbeinsson - it is him too hann er ok, ok mun hans ørendi , and his business would be best óþarft." left undone.' It represented two men, one of þat váru karlar tveir, ok hafði 132 Bj 17 ǫ ǫ 154 them with a black hat on his 182 annarr h tt blán á h fði; head. 137 Bj 25 Hann var í blári kápu, 177 He was wearing a black cape, 197 Geirrið was wearing a blue 180 Erb 20 Geirriðr hafði blá skikkju yfir sér. 53 307 cloak. Snorri goði var í blári kápu ok Snorri Goði was in the lead, 221 Erb 47 134 355 reiðr fyrstr. wearing a black cloak. Table 52. ​Blár​ in ​Snæfellingasögur No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Snorri, on the other hand, wore en Snorri var í svartri kápu ok ǫ a black cloak and was riding a reið sv rtu merhrossi góðu; 161 Erb 13 23 good black mare; he had an old 291 hann hafði fornan trogsǫðul ok trough-shaped saddle, and his vápn litt til fegrdar búin; weapons had little adornment. Table 53. ​Svartr ​in S​ næfellingasögur A great many pages have been written about the relation between ​blár ​and ​svartr ​in Mediaeval Icelandic literature (Valtýr Guðmundsson 1892, Hughes 1971, Hansen 1979, Roscoe 1992, Straubhaar 2005, Wolf 2006, Zanchi 2007, D’Ettore 2009). 78 Most of these sources are founded on the “possible saga convention” suggested by Hughes (1971). He presents examples from three sagas ( ​Njáls, Hrafnkels, Grettis ​) and poses a hypothesis that people wear their best clothing when danger is imminent. However, of the eight examples he provides, only one scene includes a ‘blue cloak’. Indeed, Hughes (1971: 172) says in conclusion: “[T]here is a definite association between the description of bright clothes or armour and impending danger or crisis for the wearer.” It is Hansen, who in 1979 establishes a link between ​blár​ and violence: “I de undersøgte tekster er forholdet mellem ‘blár’ og de øvrige farver, hvor disse udtrykkeligt er nævnt, regerleret efter et participativt forløb, hvor ‘blár’ altid er indføjet i en kontekst, som implicerer vold/død under en eller anden form, medens de øvrige farver ikke ses at være underlagt samme automatik med adviserende informationsfunktion.” (Hansen 1979: 13-14) “In the analysed texts, the relationship between b​ lár and the other colours, where they are mentioned, is regulated by a participatory process, where b​ lár is always introduces in a context which implies violence/death in one or other form, whereas the other colours do not seem to use the same mechanism of forewarning.” (Author’s translation) Hansen provides examples from 10 sagas and also introduces the syntagma of b​ lá kápa​, which he connects to Odin (Hansen 1979). Straubhaar (2005) describes the situation “It is evidently a common assumption, among saga scholars and historical re-enactors, that, as the Icelandic saga narratives tell us, early Icelanders (as a rule) dressed themselves in dark clothing before foraying out to slay someone.” Straubhaar goes on to carefully analyse the material and arrives at the following conclusion: “For instance, if a character rides into a saga scene wearing his or her best clothes, perhaps blue-dyed ones, that character m​ ight slay someone in the near future; but often he won’t.” (Straubhaar 2005: 65) Yet in 2009, D´Ettore, who is also familiar with Straubhaar’s article, attributes Hughes with “expand[ing] on the commonplace observation about the menacing nature of men in blue or black cloaks [...] making an important but highly understated argument for a connection between clothing and impending crisis for the wearer.” (D’Ettore 2009: 1) 79 D’Ettore (2009: 14) concludes by saying: “Further consideration reveals Hughes’s ‘possibilities’ to be realities within the literature.” Wolf (2006: 71) compares b​ lár a​ nd s​ vartr​, and identifies a clear semantic difference between the two terms, and remarks, in this author’s opinion, correctly that ​blár w​ as always, at least when referring to textiles, a dyed hue. Wolf however, cites (2006: 71) the example of Ljót from B​ olli þáttr Bollasonar ​, in which he is said to have worn a s​ vartr kyrtill ​for his everyday business and a ​blár kyrtill f​ or when he was in the mood for killing. Zanchi (2007: 125) notes that in ​Valla-Ljóts saga (which originates from the first half of the 13th century as opposed to the þ​ áttr which is half a century younger), the everyday k​ yrtill ​is b​ rúnn​, but adds “his ​blár t​ unic forewarns nothing but trouble”. What do the instances in S​ næfellingasögur tell us about previous scholarship? There are eight scenes in the ​Snæfellingasögur that include either a b​ lár o​ r a ​svartr garment. In B​ árðar saga, c​ h. 18 Rauðgrani is described as having a blue-spotted cape (see 5.2.6). He is later identified as Odin, and he undoubtedly makes trouble when preaching paganism, although he does not kill anybody, whereas he is killed by the priest Jostein. In B​ jarnar saga,​ ch. 17, one of the men depicted as having homosexual intercourse is said to have worn a blue hat. There is no imminent violence, although of course this adds considerably to the conflict between Thord and Björn (see 5.2.7 for further discussion). The single instance of a blue garment in V​ íglundar saga is in ch. 8 when Ólof disguises herself as the “extremely angry” (V​ iglund’s saga 2002: 236) Ottar when the brothers Einar and Jökull come to the farm with plans to rape her. This is, as has been shown in 5.2.4, a great example of lying in dress. Given that one other woman is said to have worn ​blár ​in ​Snæfellingasögur (and we do not hear about the specifics of Ólof’s own möttul)​ , might it be that b​ lár reinforces the perceived manliness? There is certainly impending danger in the scene, but this is clear from the onset. Ólof, dressed in blue, is the wildcard who turns the blade against the brothers themselves. The only other woman said to have worn a blue garment was the f​ jölkynnig ​Geirrid, 80 who meets Arnkel and his men when they try to catch Odd Kötluson in ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 20. The scene is already full of the willingness to kill, yet the men are at a loss because of Katla’s doings. Geirrid, who obviously steps out of her domestic sphere, is the one who overthrows Katla after she joins Arnkel and his men. Here again, the blue might underline the masculine traits. There is another prime example of lying in dress, relating to both the single instance of svartr ( ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ ch. 13 where Snorri godi returns from abroad) and ​blár ( ​Eyrbyggja saga ​, ch. 47 where Snorri goes to attack Björn). This has been covered already in 2.1 and 5.2.1. However, previous scholarship, such as Zanchi (2007: 145) interprets this only as the immediate scenes suggest: that Snorri was too poor to afford a better set of garments. The relationship between the two garments is clear, however, as the s​ vart kápa ​is mocked for being too low status and Snorri wears a b​ lá kápa ​when riding in front of his men. Yet Snorri does not kill Björn because he acts more boldly and instead threatens Snorri with the knife he has at hand. The remaining two instances are from ​Bjarnar saga.​ In ch. 11, Thord arrives at Björn’s farm wearing a ​blá kápa,​ but is identified beforehand by Björn’s mother who says “[‘]his business would be best left undone.’” (The Saga of Bjorn 2002: 170). Contrary to expectation, Thord does not come to kill but invites Björn to stay with him for the winter. In ch. 25 (The Saga of Bjorn 2002: 197-198), Björn is visiting a friend and is advised by the hostess to take a different route home after he has bad dreams. He is said to have been in a b​ lá kápa,​ which he could not have produced because of the dreams, but which he must have had with him when going on this friendly visit, if the narrative is to be believed. Björn is attacked on the way home by Thord, but is not killed (this happens in ch. 32, in which he wears a ​kyrtill góðan​). On the one hand, the evidence supports the hypothesis that ​blár occurs in violent situations, but given that this does not always occur and that the sagas are full of violence and men are killed constantly, this seems rather precarious. Especially so, as Saga Thing (2018a) says that depending on the methodology used to make the count, somewhere between 80 and 150 people die of unnatural causes in E​ yrbyggja saga ​. At the time of writing, there is consistent data available only for ​Eyrbyggja saga (101 81 deaths), ​Bjarnar saga (​ 14 human deaths) and V​ íglundar saga (17 human deaths5) (Saga Thing 2018b). Given that there are 132 deaths, of which only three occur in the scenes involving a b​ lár item, we can safely say that there is no particular connection between blár a​ nd being killed, and that being exposed to fancy bedclothes is a far greater threat. 5.6.4. ​Rauðr No. Saga Ch. Old Norse Page English Page Steinthór and his men came Þeir Steinþórr rið at durum, ok riding up to the door; it is said 205 Erb 44 er svá frá sagt, at hann væri í 120 347 that he was wearing a scarlet rauðum kyrtli tunic Table 54. ​Rauðr i​ n ​Snæfellingasögur​. Only a single garment (not counting the implied f​ eldr in ​rauðfeldr,​ see 5.2.2) in Snæfellingasögur is said to have been red, and even then the red is not deemed fancy enough and is translated as ‘scarlet’ (E​ yrbyggja saga 1999: 347). A madder red item is a thing of beauty, but given that dyestuffs do not get any more expensive than scarlet (Munro 2003: 212), this seems excessive. A text search in the database revealed that red tunics are the most prolific among the Íslendingasögur - there are 21 r​ auðr kyrtill ​, 3 tunics that are s​ karlat ​, and 5 that are said to be r​ auðr skarlatskyrtill ​, that is red tunics made from scarlet cloth. Larsson (2007: 260) interprets the double label of red and scarlet as a transition form, where ‘scarlet’ has not yet become synonymous with colour, but is still primarily a fabric label with the fabric being any colour that was partly achieved with kermes. However, given that scharlachen ​denotes a good quality shorn cloth in Old High German6 (and other Germanic languages by influence) (Munro 2003: 214), then it might well be the case that ​skarlat h​ ad not at this time become fabric dyed with kermes, and the ​skarlat o​ nly refers to the quality of the fabric. 5 This count includes all untimely deaths, whether in battle or for example, from diseases, and does not include seals, horses nor oxen (Saga Thing 2018a). 6 Old High German has been recorded from about 700-1000 AD (van der Wal and Quak 1994: 72). 82 5.7. Textile work References to the production of textiles are few and far between in S​ næfellingasögur ​, especially as the work must have been ceaseless because not only did the women clothe the household, they were responsible for the production of ​vaðmál ​as well. Interestingly enough, Thórir léðrhals receives an honourable mention in this category because he was able to cut into a hide (see 5.5.1). No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Room and Kalf went into the 152 Bj 33 ok gengr Kálfr í dyngju, 204 216 dyngja women's room 153 Bj 33 gengr ór dyngjunni 205 went out of the room 216 dyngja he went into the women's 269 Erb 56 ok hann gekk í dyngjuna 153 366 dyngja room ok gengr til saumstofu and went to her 74 Vgl 8 77 236 saumstofa sinnar sewing-room, en hon sagði hana vera í that she was in her 76 Vgl 8 78 236 saumstofa saumstofu sinni. sewing-room Often she slept little and svaf hun opt lítit ok vakti í 91 Vgl 18 97 spent the nights awake in her 252 saumstofa saumstofu sinni um nætr. sewing-room. Table 55. Women’s quarters in S​ næfellingasögur. Dyngja and ​saumstofa warrant six mentions in total, but never does the audience hear about the work being done there, only that mostly men go in or out of the room. No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item 174 Erb 20 af rokki. 51 on her distaff. 306 rokkr Ok er þeir kómu skammt When they had gone all the frá garðinum, nam way from the farm, Arnkel Arnkell staðar ok mælti: stopped in his tracks and "Hvárt mun Katla eigi said, 'I wonder if Katla could 175 Erb 20 51 306 rokkr hafa heðni veift um hǫfuð have been pulling the wool oss? ok hefir þar verit over our eyes, and that what Oddr, sonr hjennar, er oss looked to us like her distaff sýndisk rokkrinn." was really her son Odd?' lá þar rokkr Kǫtlu í Katla's distaff was lying on 176 Erb 20 52 306 rokkr bekknum; the bench. ǫ His companions seized hold F runautar hans tóku 178 Erb 20 52 of the distaff and chopped it 307 rokkr rokkinn ok hjuggu í sundr. to pieces. Þá mælti Katla: "Eigi er nú Then Katla said, 'At home þat heim at segja í kveld, tonight you will not be able 179 Erb 20 52 307 rokkr at þér hafið eigi ørendi to say you accomplished haft hingat í Holt, er þér nothing on your visit to Holt 83 hjugguð rokkinn." since you have chopped up my distaff.' Katla sat á palli ok spann Katla was sitting on the dais, garn; hon bað Odd sitja spinning yarn. She told Odd hjá sér, - "ok ver hljóðr ok to sit beside her - 'and keep kyrr." Hon bað konur sitja quiet and be still'. She told 172 Erb 20 51 306 spinna í rúmum sínum, - "ok the women to stay in their verið hljóðar," kvað hon, places - 'and keep quiet,' she "en ek mun hafa orð fyrir said. 'I shall do the talking for oss." all of us.' Þeir sá, at Katla spann They noticed that Katla was 173 Erb 20 51 306 spinna garn spinning yarn ok sat Katla á palli ok Katla was sitting on the dais, 177 Erb 20 52 307 spinna spann. spinning. Thórgunna worked at the weaving every day when Þórgunna vann váðverk there was no hay-making to 244 Erb 50 hvern dag, er eigi var 139 be done; when the weather 358 vaðverk heyverk; was good she would work at drying the hay in the home-field. Table 56. Spinning and weaving in ​Snæfellingasögur. Spinning is only referenced in relation to Katla in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ ch. 20, and even the distaff is mentioned. Weaving is the main occupation of Thórgunna in ch. 50 of the same saga. Both women can be described by a degree of otherness, so there is a possible connection with magic. No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item Ok þat hugsaði jarl, sem for the earl wanted his honum gafst, at svá skyldi daughter to surpass all other hans dóttir bera af öllum women in handicrafts just as 64 Vgl 2 64 226 hannyrðir konum hannyrðir sem she had surpassed each of hon var hverri þeira them in beauty, and indeed friðari. this is what happened. Öngvar hannyrðir vild Thorbjorg did not want to 69 Vgl 7 Þorbjörg at Fossi kenna 75 teach her daughter any 234 hannyrðir dóttur sinni. handicrafts. Leitaði Hólmkell þangat Holmkel wanted his daughter fóstrs dóttur sinni til to be fostered by Olof so that Ólofar, at hon kenndi she would instruct her in henn hannyrðir, því at handicrafts, for Olof was 70 Vgl 7 Ólof var kölluð bezt 75 considered the most 234 hannyrðir mennt allra kvenna á cultivated of all women in Íslandi; Iceland. 84 ok lætr kenna dóttur sinni and he had them teach his allar þær kvenligar listir, daughter all those feminine kvenligar 63 Vgl 2 64 226 er burðugum konum skills suitable for noble listir byrjaði at kunna. women, Table 57. Textile skills in general. The necessary skill set for a woman in general is mentioned in ​Víglundar saga and is the motivation behind Ketilrid’s stay with Viglund and his family. Here, there is no association with magic or otherness, the ​kvenligar listir is seen as something noble, which can be accounted for by the late origin and continental influences on the saga. 85 6. Discussion The above analysis has taken each and every reference to clothing, textiles, and textile work in S​ næfellingasögur and analysed the items from different perspectives: by item, material, and colour. The analysis has provided new insights into the function of textiles in the sagas and the structure of textile references by setting the occurrences side by side. Textile work is considered a female domain and this view is not contested in Snæfellingasögur ​. However, textile work is seldom mentioned - the most prominent scene being the search for Odd Kötluson in E​ yrbyggja saga ch. 20, in addition to which women’s rooms ( ​dyngja, saumstofa)​ are mentioned nearly only as a way of setting the scene, as places men can enter or leave. The focus being on men is further underlined by the fact that most textiles and clothing occur in relation to men, and female items are not only rarer but there are also fewer varieties. Almost the whole male costume is represented, whereas the female costume is anything but complete. Whatever the item, the reader receives very little information about the specifics of the items mentioned,although this information can be obtained from other parts of the text. For example, the seemingly enigmatic phrase about the lack of woollen cloth (“ ​þar er mjök var illt til vaðmála ​”) in ​Bárðar saga, ​ch. 3 (ÍF XIII: 108), which when seen in the larger context, contributes to pinpointing the ethnic origins of Thorkell Skin-swathed, which in turn helps to explain the meaning of the expression (see 5.5.2 for the detailed discussion). Combining source material from several fields (archaeology, experimental archaeology) has helped to evaluate another scene in which Arnbjörn arrives at the boat with 300 ells of v​ aðmál,​ which as the calculations have shown in 5.5.2 would have been a manageable load for a man. The aforementioned sources have also helped to give background on how extensive and time-consuming the making of textiles would actually have been. The saga authors concern themselves with the specifics clothing and textiles very little. 86 Around a third of the occurrences are general references to clothing, not specific items. This might well be because the impression was more important than the detail - for example, phrases like “v​ ǫnduð ǫll klæði​” in E​ yrbyggja saga,​ ch. 13 (ÍF IV: 23) or “ ​váru þeir svá vel búnir, at menn hugðu þar væri komnir æsir​” in ​Bárðar saga ​, ch. 22 (ÍF XIII: 171) serve to evoke a sense of wealth and finery, they are not meant to act as a sourcebook for costume history. This is not the only function of textiles in the narrative by a long way - several recurrent themes have revealed themselves. Clothing and other textiles as a show of status are by no means novel but is worth mentioning. Especially as this analysis has not limited itself to dress, but has included other textile items. The most prominent is the case of Thórgunna in E​ yrbyggja saga,​ the expression of whose wealth is expressed by no means limited to her personal garments, but also includes the elaborate bedclothes she pulls from her chest one by one. The connection between the fineness of clothing and the wearer’s wealth is another theme, although this has rather surprisingly been used for lying in dress, such as Snorri godi’s return to Iceland in E​ yrbyggja saga,​ chs. 13-14 (ÍF IV: 22-25). Snorri gives the impression of having lost his travel money by wearing a humble k​ ápa​, but sneakily using this manoeuver to establish his own household. Another prime example is from Viglundar saga,​ ch. 8 (ÍF XIV: 77-78) where mistress Ólof scares off two men by dressing as a man, looking utterly angry, and entering the room with a drawn sword. Clothing is in some additional cases used to hide a character’s identity, for example when Viglund returns injured from the games and is greeted as a woman by his own father ( ​Viglundar saga ​, ch. 14, ÍF XIV: 89), when Björn hides in the bushes before attacking Thord and his companions ( ​Bjarnar saga, ​ch.7, ÍF III: 128), and when Ketilrid tries to hide her identity from Viglund (​Viglundar saga​, chs. 21-22, ÍF XIV: 107-108). In a similar manner, cloaks have been used to reveal surprises, such as a half-decomposed head in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ ch. 27 (ÍF IV: 69), or a purse full of silver in the same saga, ch. 14 (ÍF IV: 25), which could both perhaps also be considered as lying in dress. 87 There are, in contrast, several characters who are identified by or are synonymous with, their outfits, such as Bárd in ​Bárðar saga ​, chs. 8-11 (ÍF XIII: 127-139) who is after his retreat from society is always seen in a g​ rár kufl ​with a walrus-hide rope. Arnbjörn’s brother and his men are alerted in E​ yrbyggja saga ​, ch. 42 (ÍF IV: 114) because they see someone on the roof who could definitely not be Arnbjörn because he did not dress that way. The supernatural and textiles are a recurrent theme in ​Snæfellingasögur:​ two tunics are supplied to men before battle by their knowledgeable mothers, tunics that make them unsusceptible to harm ( ​Bárðar saga ​, ch. 6, ÍF XIII: 244, and E​ yrbyggja saga ​, ch. 18, ÍF IV: 34). King Ólaf Tryggvason appears several times in the sagas as a generous gift-giver, disbursing gifts that are very precious; yet some seem more special than others, for example the garter he exchanges with Björn Hitdælakappa and which does not decay even after Björn’s death (B​ jarnar saga ​, ch. 9, ÍF III: 133-134), or the cloth and iron shoes he supplies Gest with for his journey to ransack the mound of King Raknar ( ​Bárðar saga ​, chs. 18-20, ÍF XIII: 162-166). The items protect the wearer, both in and out of the mound, and the dynamic of the scene is similar to the impenetrable tunics. Women who know their way around magic are associated with headwear: one character has the name Hetta ( ​Bárðar saga ​, ch. 8, ÍF XIII: 124-128) while Kjölvor waves her hood to make the weather change (V​ iglundar saga ​, ch. 12, ÍF XIV: 83) and the similarity of these scenes is striking. Similarly, Katla’s head is covered with a sealskin bag in E​ yrbyggja saga ​, ch. 20 (ÍF IV: 51-53) to prevent her from performing further illusions. Textiles other than garments do not warrant much attention, and so only tents (which do not seem to have a significant role in the narrative) and bedclothes are mentioned. The significant is the story of Thórgunna in ​Eyrbyggja saga,​ chs. 50-55 (ÍF IV: 137-151). Her wish to have her belongings disposed of as per her instructions, which she states both when coming to the farm and before her death, are not carried out and subsequently two-dozen people die. 88 The story is elaborate and so are the magnificent furnishings Thórgunna produces from her chest on her arrival. This warrants mention because some of the vocabulary consists of foreign loans, further underlining the exotic nature and exclusiveness of the items. The vocabulary is very specialised, which infers that such vocabulary was needed (likewise for the multitude of over garments that the modern audience would render simply as ‘cloak’). Another possible question is whether the story is of later origin than previously thought, as canopies did not appear in Northern Europe before late 13th century. A bed and the unknown origins of the character are outlined in another vignette, in which Helga is said to have slept little and played the harp behind the bed curtain ( ​Bárðar saga,​ ch. 7, ÍF XIII: 123-124). The private space is in turn similar to Ketilrid’s sewing room in ​Víglundar saga,​ ch. 8 (ÍF XIV: 97). Mention of colour is rather scarce in S​ næfellingasögur,​ and the colour is most often blue ( ​blár​). Previous research on the relationship between b​ lár a​ nd ​svartr and their connection to violence is examined. Examples in S​ næfellingasögur ​show that of the 132 unnatural deaths in ​Bjarnar saga ​, ​Eyrbyggja saga ​and ​Víglundar saga ​, only three can be associated with blue garments, which refutes the hypothesis that wearing b​ lár is an ominous sign. At the same time, being exposed to mistreated luxury linens results in eight times as many deaths. There are a few episodes in which the narrator has felt the need to specify that a clothing custom (for example the thongs of Egil the slave, discussed in 5.3.3, or Björn’s cross garter, discussed in 5.3.4.) was somehow different at the time of the events. Such hints can provide valuable data points on clothing customs, yet at the moment these are too scarce, and in any case should be treated with appropriate caution. In addition, the structure of the data - more clothing that is elaborate and male - means that making any conclusions that might help in reconstructing Viking Age or Mediaeval dress is nearly impossible. However, I am certain that this sample proves a valuable starting point for further research in that direction. Snæfellingasögur have proved to be a very interesting sample from a textile point of 89 view. The use of clothing as a literary device is varied, even if the texts do not reveal too much about the everyday clothing of most people. The relatively small number of texts in the sample permitted the evaluation of each reference which in turn helped shed light on how textile-related themes are used in these sagas. Further in-depth research into other ​Íslendingasögur, o​ ther saga genres (such as contemporary and legendary sagas), or Mediaeval Icelandic poetry would considerably expand the current knowledge of clothing and other textile-related themes in Old Norse-Icelandic literature, and perhaps answer at least some of the questions left unanswered in the current thesis. 90 7. Conclusion This thesis was written with clothing, textiles, and textile work in S​ næfellingasögur (the sagas of Snæfellsness, a subgroup of the sagas of Icelanders) as its primary focus. Clothing in the sagas of Icelanders has been studied before, but never have the sagas of Snæfellsness been the primary focus nor have textile-related references been subjected to a comprehensive analysis. An overview of methods used was given in ch. 2, while ch. 3 outlined the category of Snæfellingasögur ​and each text in the subgroup. Ch. 4 provided the necessary background information about pre-modern textile production. The analysis in ch. 5 was divided into several subchapters: the references to clothing, textiles, and textile work were first analysed by item, then by material and colour. The analysis was followed by a discussion in ch. 6. The four sagas in the S​ næfellingasögur ​yielded 272 usable references and ample material for the analysis. Several tendencies emerged from the texts: textiles belonging to male characters are much more common than items belonging to female characters; elaborate or precious clothing has caught the narrator’s eye more often than the mundane; other textiles, not just clothing, has been seen as an important expression of wealth; and contrary to popular belief, blue garments do not correlate with killings - but ostentatious maltreated bed furnishings do. Further research into other subgroups of the sagas of Icelanders and other genres of Old Norse-Icelandic literature has the potential of expanding, verifying, or refuting the conclusions this thesis has reached. 91 Resümee Käesolev lõputöö käsitleb rõivastust, tekstiile ja tekstiilitöid neljas Islandi perekonnasaagas ( ​Íslendingasögur​), mis leiavad aset Snæfellsnesi poolsaarel ( ​Snæfellingasögur ​). Saagades kujutatud rõivastust on uuritud varemgi, kuid Snæfellsnesi saagad on säärase käsitluse keskmes esmakordselt ning esmakordne on ka kõiki rõivastusviiteid läbiv analüüs. Ülevaade kasutatud meetoditest asub 2. peatükis. 3. peatükk käsitleb Islandi perekonnasaagasid ning annab ülevaate iga saaga süžeest ja arvatavast loomisajast. Tekstiilitööde ülevaade asub 4. peatükis ning 5. peatükk on pühendatud analüüsile. Analüüsipeatükk jaguneb järgnevalt: kõigepealt on tekstiiliviiteid analüüsitud esemete kaupa, siis materjali ja värvi alusel. Viimane alapeatükk käsitleb tekstiilitöid. Analüüsile järgneb arutelu (6. peatükk) ja kokkuvõte. Vaatlusalustes saagades oli ühtekokku 272 viidet rõivastusele, muudele tekstiilidele ja tekstiilitöödele. Analüüsist ilmnesid mitmed suundumused: eelkõige mainitakse meesterõivastust; edevad rõivad pälvivad jutustaja tähelepanu palju tihemini kui igapäevased; ka teised tekstiilid, mitte ainult rõivastus, võivad väljendada omaniku rikkust; vastupidiselt üldlevinud arusaamale ei seostu siniste rõivaste kandmine tapmistega, see-eest on äärmiselt tappev eksootiline ja hinnaline voodipesu, mille varalahkunud omaniku soove on eiratud. Uurimismaterjali laiendamine ja täiendamine teiste perekonnasaagadega ja teiste keskaegsete Põhjamaade tekstidega võimaldaks laiendada teadmusbaasi ning kinnitada või ümber lükata antud lõputöö tulemusi. 92 Bibliography Primary sources Anderson, Sarah M. (transl.) 1997. ‘​ Bard’s saga’ in ​The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, vol. 2. Ed. Viðar Hreinsson. Reykjavík, pp. 237-266 Einar Ól. Sveinsson and Matthías Þórðarson (eds.) 1935. ‘Eyrbyggja saga’ in ​Íslenzk fornrit IV. Eyrbyggja saga. Grœnlendinga sǫgur​. Reykjavík. 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Item Colour Name work l ion Female 1 Brð 2 Rauðfeld inum sterka 105 Red-cloak the Strong 239 feldr rauð M Rauðfeldr Rauðfeldss 2 Brð 3 Þorkel Rauðfeldsson 107 Thorkel, son of Red-cloak 240 feldr rauð M on 3 Brð 3 Skinnbrók 108 Skin-breeches 240 brók skinn F Skinnbrók Þorkell hét ok var kallaðr Thorkel who was called 4 Brð 3 108 240 skinn M skinnvefja skinnvefja Skin-swathed þar er mjök var illt til It was difficult to come by 5 Brð 3 108 240 vaðmál N/A vaðmála, homespun cloth there ok var sveinninn vafinn í the boy was swaddled in seal 6 Brð 3 108 240 skinn M selaskinnum til skjóls skins for warmth. As those were his swaddling 7 Brð 3 ok hafði þat fyrir reifa, 108 240 reifa M clothes, ok því var hann kallaðr he was called Thorkel 8 Brð 3 108 240 skinn M skinnvefja Þorkell skinnvefja. Skin-swathed. skar ok skar rauf á húð ok hafði Thorir cut a slit in a hide and 9 Brð 3 110 240 rauf á húð M þat fyrir hlíf; used it as protection húð and because of that was 10 Brð 3 því var hann leðrháls kallaðr. 110 240 leðr M léðrháls called Leather-neck. þar fór hann ór klæðum He took off all of his clothes 11 Brð 4 112 241 klæði M sínum öllum and bathed in the shallows. Rauðfeldss 12 Brð 4 Þorkell Rauðfeldsson 112 Thorkel Red-cloak's son 241 feldr rauð M on 13 Brð 4 Þorkell skinnvefja 112 Thorkel Skin-swathed 241 skinn M skinnvefja 14 Brð 4 Skinnbrók 113 Skin-breeches 241 brók skinn M Skinnbrók 15 Brð 4 Skinnbrók 113 Skinnbrok 241 brók skinn F Skinnbrók 98 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item Colour Name work l ion Female Rauðfeldss 16 Brð 5 Þorkell Rauðfeldsson 114 Thorkel Red-cloak's son 242 feldr rauð M on en annarr Rauðfeldr eptir and the other Red-cloak after 17 Brð 5 114 242 feldr rauð M Rauðfeldr föður hans. Thorkel's father 18 Brð 5 Rauðfeld 114 Red-cloak 242 feldr rauð M Rauðfeldr 19 Brð 5 Rauðfeldr 114 Red-cloak 242 feldr rauð M Rauðfeldr Þá var sá maðr á vist með With Eirik was a man named Eiríki, er Skeggi hét Skinna-Bja 20 Brð 5 115 Skeggi Skin-Bjorn's son, son 242 skinn M Skinna-Bjarnarson, rnarson of Skutad-Skeggi. Skútaðar-Skeggjasonar. 21 Brð 5 Rauðfeld 117 Red-cloak 243 feldr rauð M Rauðfeldr 22 Brð 5 Rauðfeldr 117 Red-cloak 243 feldr rauð M Rauðfeldr 23 Brð 5 Rauðfeld 117 Red-cloak 243 feldr rauð M Rauðfeldr 24 Brð 5 Rauðfeldr 117 Red-cloak 243 feldr rauð M Rauðfeldr Rauðfelds 25 Brð 5 Rauðfeldsgjá 117 Raudfeldsgja 243 feldr rauð M gjá 26 Brð 6 Þorkatli skinnvefju 119 Thorkel Skin-swathed 244 skinn M skinnvefja ok færði honum kyrtil and presented him with a 27 Brð 6 120 244 kyrtill M nýgervan newly made cloak. Then the belt on Einar from Þá gekk í sundr bróklindi Lon's breeches came apart, Lón-Einars, ok er hann tók 28 Brð 6 121 and when he clutched at his 245 lindi M þar til, hjó Einarr hann breeches Einar dealt him his banahögg. death blow. with the curtain drawn 29 Brð 7 ok hafði fortjald fyrir. 123 245 fortjald F before her 99 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item Colour Name work l ion Female ok eina nótt forvitnaðist hann and one night he looked 30 Brð 7 124 246 fortjald F undir tjaldit; under the bed curtain. sá hann, at Helga sat upp í He saw Helga sitting up in 31 Brð 7 124 246 serkr F einum serk. bed in a shift. Vildi hann upp í sængina ok wanted to get into bed and 32 Brð 7 undir klæðin hjá henni, en 124 under her clothes, but she 246 klæði F hon vildi þat eigi. would have none of it. 33 Brð 8 Hetta 124 Hetta 246 hetta F hetta 34 Brð 8 fjölkynngis Hettu 126 Hetta's witchcraft 247 hetta F hetta var vanr at hafa yfir sér einn accustomed to have a great 35 Brð 8 skinnfeld stóran, ok var hann 126 247 feldr skinn M fur cloak over him þar í skipinu hjá honum; He took the cloak and pulled 36 Brð 8 tók hann þá feldinn 126 247 feldr M it over himself for protection. 37 Brð 8 Hettu 127 Hetta 247 hetta F hetta 38 Brð 8 hann var í grám kufli 127 He was in a grey cowl 247 kufl grár M with a rope of hide around 39 Brð 8 ok hafði svarðreip um sik. 127 247 svarðreip svörðr M his waist. 40 Brð 8 Hetta 127 Hetta 247 hetta F hetta There was an evil spirit Óvættr ein, er Torfár-Kolla named Kolla of Torfa, known 41 Brð 9 hét, en Skinnhúfa öðru nafni, 128 247 húfa skinn F skinnhúfa also as Skin-cap; she lived at hon átti heima at Knausum; Hnausar. 42 Brð 9 Var hann svá optast búinn, 129 He was usually clad 248 búa M 43 Brð 9 at hann var í grám kufli 129 in a grey cowl 248 kufl grár M with a walrus-hide rope 44 Brð 9 ok svarðreip um sik 129 248 svarðreip svörðr M around him, 100 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item Colour Name work l ion Female 45 Brð 10 sá var hann í grám kufli 133 He was in a grey cowl 249 kufl grár M 46 Brð 10 Þorkel skinnvefju 133 Thorkel Skin-swathed 249 skinn M skinnvefja 47 Brð 10 í grám kufli 135 in a grey cowl 250 kufl M Váru þá dregin af Oddi 48 Brð 10 135 Odd's clothes were pulled off 250 klæði M vosklæði 49 Brð 10 Þorkell skinnvefja 136 Thorkel Skin-swathed 250 skinn M skinnvefja 50 Brð 11 ok var í grám kufli 139 wearing a grey cowl 251 kufl grár M Bard had brought Thordis a Fært hafði Bárðr Þórdísi 51 Brð 12 142 handsome set of women's 253 búningr T vænan kvenmannsbúning. clothing. 52 Brð 13 Þorkell skinnvefja 142 Thorkel Skin-swathed 253 skinn M skinnvefja 53 Brð 13 Þorkell skinnvefja 144 Thorkel Skin-swathed 253 skinn M skinnvefja The king gave him forty pairs Konungr fekk honum fjörutigi 54 Brð 18 162 of iron shoes that were lined 262 skó járn M járnskó, ok váru dyndir innan. with down. He gave to him a length of dúk gaf hann honum ok bað cloth and asked him to wrap 55 Brð 18 hann vefja honum um sik, áðr 162 262 dúk M it around himself before en hann gengi í hauginn. entering the grave mound. hann hafði bláflekkótta he wore a blue-spotted cape 56 Brð 18 skautheklu ok kneppta niðr í 163 with a hood, which buttoned 262 hekla blár M milli fóta sér. all the way down to his feet. They then put on the iron Tóku þeir þá járnskó þá, er 57 Brð 19 164 shoes that king had given 263 skó járn M konungr hafði fengit þeim: them. 101 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item Colour Name work l ion Female When they had all put on the En er allir höfðu tekit skóna shoes except Jostein the 58 Brð 19 nema Jósteinn prestr, gengu 164 263 skó M priest, they ventured onto þeir á hraunit. the lava field. he saw Raknar, 59 Brð 20 ok var hann fagrbúinn; 165 263 búa M magnificiently dressed. Gest had wrapped himself Vafit hafði Gestr sik með 60 Brð 20 166 with the cloth that the king 264 dúk M dúkinum konungsnaut, had presented to him Siðan andaðist Gestr í Afterwards Gest died, still in 61 Brð 21 170 265 váðir hvítr M hvítavaðum. his baptismal clothes. When they came to the En er þeir kvámu á þingit, assembly, they were so well váru þeir svá vel búnir, at 62 Brð 22 171 turned out that men thought 266 búa M menn hugðu þar væri komnir the gods themselves had æsir. arrived. ok lætr kenna dóttur sinni and he had them teach his allar þær kvenligar listir, er daughter all those feminine kvenlig 63 Vgl 2 64 226 F burðugum konum byrjaði at skills suitable for noble ar listir kunna. women, for the earl wanted his Ok þat hugsaði jarl, sem daughter to surpass all other honum gafst, at svá skyldi women in handicrafts just as hannyr 64 Vgl 2 hans dóttir bera af öllum 64 226 F she had surpassed each of ðir konum hannyrðir sem hon them in beauty, and indeed var hverri þeira friðari. this is what happened. 65 Vgl 5 á klæði Gríms. 69 on to Grim's clothing. 230 klæði M 102 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item Colour Name work l ion Female He was fittingly attired, since Hann var sæmiliga klæddr, the king bestowed much því at konungr lagði mikla honour on him, but many of virðing á hann, ok þótti þat 66 Vgl 5 70 the king's men thought this 230 klæða M mörgum hans mönnum við of excessive, and for this reason ok lögðu mikla þykkju á they disliked Thorgrim Þorgrím þar fyrir. intensely. He received a nickname and Lengt var nafn hans ok var 67 Vgl 5 70 was called Thorgrim the 230 prúðr M kallaðr Þorgrímr prúði. Elegant. 68 Vgl 7 Þorgrímr inn prúði 74 Thorgrim the Elegant 234 prúðr M Öngvar hannyrðir vild Thorbjorg did not want to hannyr 69 Vgl 7 Þorbjörg at Fossi kenna 75 teach her daughter any 234 F ðir dóttur sinni. handicrafts. Holmkel wanted his daughter Leitaði Hólmkell þangat fóstrs to be fostered by Olof so that dóttur sinni til Ólofar, at hon she would instruct her in hannyr 70 Vgl 7 kenndi henn hannyrðir, því at 75 handicrafts, for Olof was 234 F ðir Ólof var kölluð bezt mennt considered the most allra kvenna á Íslandi; cultivated of all women in Iceland. 71 Vgl 8 Þorgrímr inn prúði 77 Thorgrim 235 prúðr M 72 Vgl 8 Þorgrímr inn prúði 77 Thorgrim 236 prúðr M Stendr hon þá upp skjótt ok She stood up quickly, got 73 Vgl 8 77 236 klæða F klæðir sikk dressed, and went to her saumst 74 Vgl 8 ok gengr til saumstofu sinnar 77 236 F sewing-room, ofa 103 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item Colour Name work l ion Female where she sat her ok setr þar niðr griðkonu sína 75 Vgl 8 77 servant-woman down and 236 möttul F ok leggr yfir hana möttul sinn laid her own cloak over her en hon sagði hana vera í that she was in her saumst 76 Vgl 8 78 236 F saumstofu sinni. sewing-room ofa At this moment a man Í þessu kom maðr í stofuna dressed in black walked into 77 Vgl 8 bláklæddr ok helt á brugðnu 78 237 klæða blár CD the room; he was holding a sverði. drawn sword. en inn bláklæddi maðr var the man in black was Olof 78 Vgl 8 78 236 klæða blár CD Ólof sjálf. herself. 79 Vgl 10 Þorgrímr inn prúði 80 Thorgrim the Elegant 238 prúðr M 80 Vgl 12 Þorgríms prúða 83 Thorgrim the Elegant 240 prúðr M Kjolvor knew all about this Allt vissi Kjölvör þetta ok fór and climbed up on the house upp á hús ok veifði kofra and waved her hood in the 81 Vgl 12 83 240 kofri F sínum í austrætt, ok þykknaði easterly direction, and all at skjótt veðrit. once the weather turned bad. 82 Vgl 12 Þorkell skinnvefja 84 Thorkel Skin-swathed 241 skinn M skinnvefja 83 Vgl 13 Þorgrími inum prúða 84 Thorgrim the Elegant 241 prúðr M 84 Vgl 13 Þorgrím prúða 85 Thorgrim the Elegant 242 prúðr M Trausti reist af skyrtu sinni ok Trausti tore a piece off his 85 Vgl 14 batt upp brúnina á bróður 89 shirt and wound it around 245 skyrta M sínum; Viglund’s brow. 104 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work 'that the one with the "sem þat muni kona vera, 86 Vgl 14 89 headgear must be the 245 faldr CD sem faldinn hefir." woman.' var hann fluttr í fjórum he was carried home on a í fjórum 87 Vgl 14 89 246 M skautum heim makeshift litter. skautum 88 Vgl 15 Þorgrím prúða 91 Thorgrim the Elegant 247 prúðr M 89 Vgl 16 Þorgrím prúða 94 Thorgrim the Elegant 250 prúðr M 90 Vgl 17 Þorgrím prúða 95 Thorgrim the Elegant 251 prúðr M Often she slept little and svaf hun opt lítit ok vakti í saumst 91 Vgl 18 97 spent the nights awake in her 252 F saumstofu sinni um nætr. ofa sewing-room. 92 Vgl 19 Þorgríms prúða 101 Thorgrim the Elegant 255 prúðr M 93 Vgl 19 Þorgríms prúða 102 Thorgrim the Elegant 256 prúðr M 94 Vgl 19 Þorgrímr inn prúða 102 Thorgrim the Elegant 256 prúðr M 95 Vgl 19 Þorgríms prúða 102 Thorgrim the Elegant 256 prúðr M Í einni sæng lágu þau bæði The two lay together in one 96 Vgl 20 saman; eitt sparlak var þar 103 bed; one blanket covered 257 sparlak T fyrir. them. Svá er sagt, at Ketilriðr hafi Ketilrid had a veil ever before haf hinnu fyrir andliti sér ok 97 Vgl 21 107 her face, for she would not 260 hinna F hafi eigi viljat, at Víglundr hafi that Viglund should know her þekkt hana, Hon hafði sprett hinnunni frá had rent the veil from her 98 Vgl 22 108 261 hinna F andliti sér face En aldri hafði Ketiliriðr hinnu Now Ketilrid never had a veil 99 Vgl 22 108 261 hinna F fyrir andliti sér þaðan frá, before her face 105 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work 100 Vgl 22 Hann lyptir upp fortjaldinu; 109 So he lifted up the curtains 262 fortjald T 101 Vgl 23 Þorgrímr inn prúði 115 Thorgrim the Elegant 265 prúðr M 102 Vgl 23 Þorgríms prúða 115 Thorgrim the Elegant 266 prúðr M Furthermore, we have never höfum vit ok aldri undir slept together between the 103 Vgl 23 115 266 klæði T einum klæðum legit, sheets because a bed-board separated us, þó at vit höfum haft eitt even though we shared one 104 Vgl 23 115 266 klæði T áklæði coverlet. Then a tent was pitched over 105 Bj 4 Var þar skotit tjaldi yfir Bjǫrn, 121 160 tjald M Bjorn Thord composed a drapa Þórðr orti drápu um Ólaf about King Olaf; then he konung; síðan fór hann ok went and recited it himself, 106 Bj 7 fœrði sjálfr ok þá af konungi 127 and received from the king a 163 kyrtill pell M gullhring ok pellskyrtil gold ring, a silken tunic hlaðbúinn ok sverð gott. trimmed with lace, and a fine sword. 107 Bj 7 hann hafði kufl 128 He had a cloak 164 kufl M 108 Bj 7 einn yztan klæða. 128 on over his clothes. 164 klæði M Siðan lét Bjǫrn Þórð ok Then Bjorn made Thord and fǫruneyti hans allt fara á all his companions get into 109 Bj 7 knarrarbátinn með klæðum 130 the ship's boat with their 165 klæði M sínum ok flytja svá til clothes, and so cross to the meginlands. mainland. Bjǫrn skyldi hafa Bjorn was to have a tunic of guðvefja 110 Bj 8 131 167 kyrtill M guðvefjarkyrtil precious cloth r 106 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work ok lǫgðu menn klæði sín á and everyone left his clothes 111 Bj 9 ǫ 133 168 klæði M v llinn, on the ground; a tent was pitched over the 112 Bj 9 en tjaldat var yfir laugina. 133 168 tjald M bath. En þat var mǫnnum þá títt, at It was customary then for 113 Bj 9 133 168 reima M hafa reimar, men to wear cross-garters, 114 Bj 9 því líkar sem lindar væri, 133 which were like belts, 168 lindi M laced up from the shoe to ok var því vafit frá skó ok til ǫ the knee. The better men knés, ok h fdu þat jafnan 115 Bj 9 133 and the nobility always wore 168 skó M helztu mennok tignir; ok þat ǫ them, and the king and Bjorn sama hafði konungr ok Bj rn. did the same. Ok Bjǫrn gekk til klæða sinna And when Bjorn went to his 116 Bj 9 134 168 klæði M fyrr en aðrir menn, clothes before other people, 117 Bj 9 ok váru fǫt Bjarnar 134 his garments were 168 fǫt M 118 Bj 9 hjá klæðum konungs, 134 beside the king's, 168 klæði M ok varð Birni eirgi at huggat, and Bjorn did not realize 119 Bj 9 134 168 klæða M furr en menn váru klæddir, until everyone was dressed at Bjǫrn hafði skipt um that he had exchanged reimarnar við konung, ok cross-garters with the king. sagði honum þegar til He told him at once of his 120 Bj 9 134 168 reima M vanhyggju sinnar; en konungr mistake but the king let it skipaði kyrrt vera ok kvað þá rest, and said that the one he eigi verri, er hann hafði. was wearing was no worse. Bjǫrn hafði ávallt þessa reim Bjorn always wore this um fót sinn, á meðan hann cross-garter around his leg 121 Bj 9 134 169 reima M lifði, ok með henni var hann for as long as he lived, and niðr grafinn. with it he was buried. 107 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work And much later, when his bones were taken up and Ok þá miklu siðar, er bein moved to another church, hans váru upp tekin ok fœrð that same cross-garter 122 Bj 9 til annarrar kirkju, þá var sú in 134 169 reima M remained uncorrupted sama ræma ófúin um fótlegg around Bjorn's leg-bone, Bjarnar, en allt var annat fúit, although everything else was decayed. It is now the cincture of a set ok er þat nú messufatalindi í 123 Bj 9 134 of mass vestments at Gardar 169 lindi M Gorðum á Akranesi. on Akraness. Then the next winter Bjorn Ok nú um vetrinn eptra var ǫ stayed in Norway, and King Bj rn í Nóregi, ok gaf Óláfr Olaf gave him a finely made konungr honum skikkju 124 Bj 9 134 cloak and promised him his 169 skikkja vandað M vandaða, ok hét honum sinni friendship, calling him an vináttu ok kallaði hann vera intrepid man and a fine vaskan mann ok góðan dreng. fellow. They carried their gear Þeir bera búnað sinn af skipi 125 Bj 10 135 ashore and pitched their 169 tjald M ok reisa tjǫld sín. tent. hann reið einn saman í blári He rode alone in a black 126 Bj 11 136 170 kápa blár M kápu. cloak. Þat hǫfðu þau at sýslu þann Bjorn and his mother were dag, Bjǫrn ok móðir hans, at busy that day spreading out 127 Bj 11 137 170 lérept T þau breiddu niðr lérept ok the linen that had been þurrkuðu, er vát hǫfðu orðit. washed to dry. 108 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work She broke into speech: Hon tók til orða: "Maðr riðr 'There is a man riding there,' þar," segir hon, "í blári kápu she said, 'in a black cloak, 128 Bj 11 ok er alllíkr Þórði 137 looking very like Thord 170 kápa blár M Kolbeinssyni, ok hann er ok, Kolbeinsson - it is him too , ok mun hans ørendi óþarft." and his business would be best left undone.' During the winter, Thord, ǫll hvíldu þau í einu útibúri Oddny and the um vetrinn, Þórðr ok Oddný serving-woman who helped 129 Bj 14 149 178 klæði T ok verkkona, er togaði af them off with their clothes þeim klæði. all slept in a separate apartment. She climbed up over the side en hon sté upp yfir stokkinn ǫ of the bed and tried to get ok vildi undir f tin hjá 130 Bj 14 149 under the covers beside him, 178 fǫt T honum, ok var þess eigi kostr, but this was not possible, ok sat hon af því upp. and so she stayed sitting up. ǫ It is said that when he was Þat er sagt, þá er Bj rn var about to leave at the end of búinn á brott ór vist inni, þá his stay, he gave Oddny the 131 Bj 14 gaf hann Oddnúju skikkjuna 150 179 skikkja T cloak which had been Þórðarnaut, ok mælti hvárt ǫ Thord's, and they spoke þeira vel fyrir ðru. fondly to each other. It represented two men, one þat váru karlar tveir, ok hafði 132 Bj 17 ǫ 154 of them with a black hat on 182 hǫttr blár M annarr h tt blán á hǫfði; his head. 133 Bj 19 en var sjálfr léttbúinn 166 but he was lightly 189 búa M 109 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work 134 Bj 19 at klæðum. 166 clothed. 189 klæði M 135 Bj 21 Kolli inn prúði 171 Kolli the Magnificent 193 prúðr M Bjorn gave him a knife and a ok gaf honum til kníf ok belti, belt as a bribe to tell him 136 Bj 22 at hann segði honum, þá er 173 when the outlaws who were 194 belti M skógarmenn fœri til skips, staying with Steinolf left for their ship. 137 Bj 25 Hann var í blári kápu, 177 He was wearing a black cape, 197 kápa blár M 138 Bj 25 ok gyrði hann at útan 177 and he belted it firmly 197 gyrða M ǫ There were no fires made Eigi varu þar eldar g rvir né there and no change of 139 Bj 27 skipt um klæði, ok váru þeir 184 201 klæði T clothes was offered, although vatnir ok frørnir. they were wet and frozen. Feldir váru þeim fengnir yfir They were given cloaks to 140 Bj 27 184 202 feldr T sér, wrap themselves in, því at skóklæði þeira váru for their shoes and socks were frørin, ok máttu þeir eigi ór frozen so that they could not 141 Bj 27 185 20 skóklæði T komask, er engi var eldinn get them off, as no fire was gǫrr; kindled. engi váru þeim ok boðin þurr Nor were they offered any dry 142 Bj 27 ǫ 185 202 fǫt T f t. clothes. This was what their night's Þann veg var nætrbjǫrg þeira, lodging was like: some of at sumir kómusk ór brókum, them got themselves out of 143 Bj 27 ok heng þær um nóttina á þili 185 their breeches, which hung, 202 brók T frørnar, og lǫgðusk þá til frozen, overnight on the svefns. partition, and then they lay down to sleep. 110 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work Then Bjorn had great fires Siðan lét Bjǫrn gera elda made, and told Thorstein to 144 Bj 27 mikla ok bað Þorstein baka 186 203 klæði M toast himself and dry his sik ok þurrka klæði sín. clothes. Bjorn gave Thorfinna a gold Þorfinnu gaf Bjǫrn gullhring ring and the costly woven ok guðvefjarkyrtil, er Óláfr tunic which King Olaf had konungr hafði gefit Þórði given to Thord Kolbeinsson, guðvefja 145 Bj 29 191 207 kyrtill T Kolbeinssyni, ok hann gerði til and which the king had given r handa Birni eptir rán í into Bjorn's possession after Brenneyjum. the robbery in the Branno islands Nú býsk hann til hrossanna Now he made ready to go to 146 Bj 32 ok hefir manskæri mikli á 197 the horses, and had the large 211 lindi M linda mane-shears at his belt, ǫ a hood on his head and a h tt á hǫfði ok skjǫld á hlið; shield at his side. He had in 147 Bj 32 sverð hafði hann í hendi, er 197 211 hǫttr M his hand the sword belonging Þorfinnr Þvarason átti. to Thorfinn Thvarason. 148 Bj 32 Bjǫrn hafði kyrtil góðan 199 Bjorn had on a fine tunic 212 kyrtill M 149 Bj 32 ok var í hosum 199 and was wearing hose, 212 hosa M and bound around his leg ok vafit silkiræmu um fót sér, was the silk cross-garter he 150 Bj 32 þeiri hann hafði skipt um við 199 212 reima silki M had got in the exchange with inn helga Óláf konung. the blessed King Olaf. 111 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work Ok meðan þeir rœddusk unfastened the mane-shears þetta við, þá leysti Björn from his belt. They had just 151 Bj 32 manskæri af linda sér, ok 201 been sharpened before he 213 lindi M váru þau nýhvǫtt, er hann fór came out, and were both heiman, bæði mikil ok bitrlig. large and keen. and Kalf went into the 152 Bj 33 ok gengr Kálfr í dyngju, 204 216 dyngja M women's room 153 Bj 33 gengr ór dyngjunni 205 went out of the room 216 dyngja F ok var niðr lagðr með He was buried with his 154 Bj 33 207 217 klæði M klæðum clothes ok ræmunni, sem fyrr var and the cross-garter, as was 155 Bj 33 207 217 reima M sagt. said before. the son of Ragnar Loðbrók 156 Erb 1 Ragnars sonar loðbrókar 4 280 brók M (Shaggy-Breeks) 157 Erb 2 Hauk hábrók 5 Hauk Hábrók (Long-Breeks) 280 brók M The Kjalleklings announced at þeir myndi eigi troða skó til that they would not wear out 158 Erb 9 at ganga þar í útsker til 15 their shoes going to an 286 skó M álfreka. offshore skerry for their needs. When these men from En er þeir bjuggursk frá skipi, Breiðarfjörður came ashore Breiðfirðingarnir, þá skauzk there was a striking 159 Erb 13 þar mjǫk í tvau horn um 22 291 búnaðr M difference between the búnað þeira Snorra ok outfit of Snorri and that of Þorleifs kimba. Thorleif Kimbi. 112 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work Thorleif bought the best Þorleif keypti þann hest, er horse he could find and had hann fekk beztan; hann hafði ǫ a magnificent coloured ok steindan s ðul saddle; he carried an allglæsiligan, hann hafði búit ornamented sword, a sverð ok guldrekit spjót, 160 Erb 13 ǫ ǫ 23 gold-inlaid spear and a 291 klæði vandað M myrkblán skj ld ok mj k ǫ ǫ richly-gilded, dark-blue gyldan,v nduð ll klæði; shield. All his clothing was of hann hafði þar ok til vart ǫ ǫ the finest quality; he had mj k llum sínum spent nearly all his travel fararefnum; money on his apparel. Snorri, on the other hand, en Snorri var í svartri kápu ok wore a black cloak and was reið svǫrtu merhrossi góðu; riding a good black mare; he 161 Erb 13 ǫ 23 291 kápa svartr M hann hafði fornan trogs ðul had an old trough-shaped ok vápn litt til fegrdar búin; saddle, and his weapons had little adornment. Thórodd's equipment búnaðr Þórodds var þar á 162 Erb 13 23 became somewhere 291 búnaðr M milli. between those two. Everybody made fun of ok hǫfðu menn þat mjǫk at Snorri because of his outfit; hlátri um búnað hans; tók Börk assumed that he had 163 Erb 13 Bǫrkr svá á, at honum hefði 23 291 búnaðr M been unlucky with his travel óheppoliga með fét farizk, er ǫ money to have squandered it llu var eitt. all. "Hvárt selda ek þér sjóð 'Did I not give you a 164 Erb 14 ǫ 25 292 sjóð M n kkurn á hausti?" money-purse last autumn?' 113 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work "Já," segir Þorbrandr ok brá 'Yes,' said Throbrand, and 165 Erb 14 25 292 sjóð M sjóðnum produced the purse 166 Erb 14 undan kápu sinni. 25 from under his cloak. 292 kápa M ok var þá eptir í sjóðnum sex there were still sixty ounces 167 Erb 14 25 292 M tigir silfrs. of silver left in the purse. Þá var hann borinn inn ok He was carried inside and 168 Erb 16 29 295 klæði M dregin af honum klæði; undressed; En þeir kómu í Holt til Kǫtlu, When they arrived at Holt, fœrdi hon Odd, son sinn, í Katla dressed her son Odd in móbrú 169 Erb 18 34 297 kyrtill T kyrtil móbrúnan, er hon hafði a dark-brown tunic she had nn þá nýgǫrt. just made. Thórarin's wife Auð called on Auðr húsfreyja hét á konur at the women to separate them 170 Erb 18 skilja þá, ok kǫstuðu þær 36 298 klæði F and they threw clothes on klæðum á vápn þeira. the weapons. Odd was unharmed, as now hann var ekki sárr, því at eigi 171 Erb 18 37 weapon could penetrate his 299 kyrtill M festi vápn á kyrtli hans. tunic. Katla was sitting on the dais, Katla sat á palli ok spann spinning yarn. She told Odd garn; hon bað Odd sitja hjá to sit beside her - 'and keep sér, - "ok ver hljóðr ok kyrr." quiet and be still'. She told 172 Erb 20 Hon bað konur sitja í rúmum 51 306 spinna F the women to stay in their sínum, - "ok verið hljóðar," places - 'and keep quiet,' she kvað hon, "en ek mun hafa said. 'I shall do the talking for orð fyrir oss." all of us.' 114 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work They noticed that Katla was 173 Erb 20 Þeir sá, at Katla spann garn 51 306 spinna F spinning yarn 174 Erb 20 af rokki. 51 on her distaff. 306 F When they had gone all the Ok er þeir kómu skammt frá way from the farm, Arnkel garðinum, nam Arnkell staðar stopped in his tracks and ok mælti: "Hvárt mun Katla said, 'I wonder if Katla could 175 Erb 20 eigi hafa heðni veift um 51 306 rokkr F ǫ have been pulling the wool h fuð oss? ok hefir þar verit over our eyes, and that what Oddr, sonr hjennar, er oss looked to us like her distaff sýndisk rokkrinn." was really her son Odd?' ǫ Katla's distaff was lying on 176 Erb 20 lá þar rokkr K tlu í bekknum; 52 306 rokkr F the bench. Katla was sitting on the dais, 177 Erb 20 ok sat Katla á palli ok spann. 52 307 spinna F spinning. Fǫ His companions seized hold runautar hans tóku rokkinn 178 Erb 20 52 of the distaff and chopped it 307 rokkr F ok hjuggu í sundr. to pieces. Then Katla said, 'At home Þá mælti Katla: "Eigi er nú þat tonight you will not be able heim at segja í kveld, at þér to say you accomplished 179 Erb 20 52 307 rokkr F hafið eigi ørendi haft hingat í nothing on your visit to Holt Holt, er þér hjugguð rokkinn." since you have chopped up my distaff.' Geirriðr hafði blá skikkju yfir Geirrið was wearing a blue 180 Erb 20 53 307 skikkja blár F sér. cloak. one of them in coloured 181 Erb 20 ok einn í lítklæðum. 53 307 klæði F clothing. 115 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work She got up from the dais and Stóð hon þá upp af pallinum 182 Erb 20 œ 53 lifted the cushions on which 307 hœgind F ok tók h gindin undan sér; she had been sitting. Geirriðr varp af sér skikkjunni Geirrið threw off her cloak 183 Erb 20 ǫ 53 307 skikkja F ok gekk at K tlu and went over to Katla; she took out a sealskin bag ok tok selbelg, er hon hafði she had brought with her 184 Erb 20 með sér, ok fœrði hann á 53 307 selbelg sel F hǫfuð Kǫ and pulled it over Katla's tlu; head. Þá brá Þorgerðr hǫfðinu produced the head from 185 Erb 27 69 316 skikkja F undan skikkju sinni under her cloak Hon hafði tekit sinn bezta She had put on her finest 186 Erb 28 73 319 búnaðr F búnað; clothes. 187 Erb 30 Þrælarnir klæddusk 82 The slaves got dressed 30 klæða N/A After that he wrapped some siðan sveipaði hann klæðum clothes around Thórólf's 188 Erb 33 at hǫfði Þórólfi ok bjó um 92 head and prepared him for 330 klæði M hann eptir siðvenju. burial according to the custom of the time. Snorri stóð upp ok bað menn Snorri got up and told his 189 Erb 37 100 335 klæða M klæðask. men to put their clothes on. 190 Erb 37 Ok er þeir váru klæddir 100 When they were dressed, 335 klæða M Nú er at segja frá þrælum To return to Arnkel's slaves: Arnkels, at þeir gengu inn, þá they went inside when they 191 Erb 37 er þeir hǫfðu inn borit heyit, 102 had finished carrying in the 336 stakkr skinn M ok fóru af skinnstǫkkum hay, and took off their sínum. leather work-clothes. 116 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work Þá hljópu menn upp ok The men leaped up and got 192 Erb 37 103 336 klæða M klæddusk dressed In his baggage were three Í bagga hans váru þrjú 193 Erb 39 105 hundred ells of homespun 337 vaðmál M hundruð vaðmála cloth ok tólf vararfeldir ok farnest twelve sheepskins and food 194 Erb 39 105 337 feldr M hans. for the voyage. Arnbjǫrn var engi Arnbjörn was not a showy áburðar 195 Erb 40 106 338 M áburðarmaðr man maðr His brother Björn, on the Bjǫrn, bróðir hans, var other hand, was a great one áburðarmaðr mikill, er hann for show, and when he came áburðar 196 Erb 40 kom út, ok helt sik vel því at 107 back to Iceland he would 338 M maðr hann hafði samit sik eptir sið dress in finery after the útlenzkra hǫfðingja; fashion of people of distinction abroad. ok riðu þeir til kaupmennirnir All the merchants rode to it 197 Erb 40 107 339 klæði M allir í lítklæðum. dressed in coloured clothing. tók þá at frysta honum and now his clothes began to 198 Erb 40 110 340 klæði M klæðin, freeze. As they came past the en er þeir kómu inn fyrir ǫ mountain at Öxl they caught xlina, sá þeir, at maðr var í 199 Erb 42 114 sight of someone in coloured 343 klæði M skrúðklæðum á húsunum clothing on top of the uppi á Bakka; farmhouse roof at Bakki; en þeir vissu, at þat var eigi they knew it was not 200 Erb 42 114 343 búnaðr M búnaðr Arnbjarnar; Arnbjörns style of dress, 117 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work He was wearing shoes with Egill hafði skúfaða skóþvengi, 201 Erb 43 117 tasselled thongs, as people 345 þvengr M sem þá var siðr til, did in those days, ok hafði losnat annarr and one of the thongs had 202 Erb 43 þvengrinn, ok dragnaði 117 become undone, and the 345 þvengr M skúfrinn; tassel trailed behind him. Ok er hann vildi stíga yfir But when he went to step þreskǫdinn, þá sté hann á 203 Erb 43 117 across the door-sill he trod 345 skúfr M þvengrjaskúfinn, þann er on the trailing tassell, dragnaði; ok er hann vildi hinum fœ and when he tried to move tinum fram stíga, þá var his other foot the tassel was 204 Erb 43 skúfrinn fastr, ok af því reiddi 117 345 skúfr M caught and he tripped and hann til falls, ok fell hann fell forward on the floor. innar á gólfit; Steinthór and his men came Þeir Steinþórr rið at durum, riding up to the door; it is 205 Erb 44 ok er svá frá sagt, at hann 120 347 kyrtill rauð M said that he was wearing a væri í rauðum kyrtli scarlet tunic ok hafði drept upp 206 Erb 44 ǫ 120 with the front tucked up 347 fyrirblǫð M fyrirbl ðunum 207 Erb 44 undir belti; 120 under his belt. 347 belti M ok festi á hurðarklofann sjóð and nailed to it a purse 208 Erb 44 þann, er í váru tólf aurar 121 containing twelve ounces of 347 sjóð M silfrs. silver. 118 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work They took the oars and þeir tóku bæði árar ok þiljur ǫ benches out of the boat and 209 Erb 45 ór skipinu ok l gðu þar eptir á 126 350 klæði M left them on the ice with ísinum, ok svá klæði sín their clothing siðan gengu þeir eptir Then they started back for 210 Erb 45 126 350 klæði M klæðum sínum their clothing tóku þeir Steinþórr þá ferð they began running very fast 211 Erb 45 mikla út eptir firðinum til 126 across the fjord to get to 350 klæði M klæða sínna their clothing he had ice-spurs on his 212 Erb 45 hann var á skóbroddum; 127 351 skóbroddr M shoes. He was wearing a felt hood Han hafði verit í flókahettu, with a piece of horn sewn 213 Erb 45 ok saumat í horn um hálsinn, 128 352 hetta flóki M into the collar, where the ok kom þar í hǫggit. blow had landed. en Freystein stóð fast á Freystein held his footing 214 Erb 45 skóbroddonum ok hjó bæði 128 with his ice-spurs and struck 352 skóbroddr M hart ok tíðum. hard and often. He was wearing tight-fitting hann var í leistabrókum, ok 215 Erb 45 129 stocking-breeches and they 352 brók M váru vátar allar af blóðinu. were drenched in blood. One of Snorri's men was Heimamaðr Snorra goða helping him off with his skyldi draga af honum; ek er 216 Erb 45 129 clothes, but when he tried to 352 brók M hann skyldi kippa brókinni, remove the breeches he fekk han eigi af honum komit. could not pull them off. 119 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work 'Your clothes are so at þér hafið klæði svá þrǫng, 217 Erb 45 129 tight-fitting that they will not 353 klæði M at eigi verðr af yðr komit." come off.' Thoródd said, 'You cannot be Þóroddr mælti: "Vantekit pulling hard enough.' The mun á vera." Eptir þat man braced one of his feet 218 Erb 45 spyrndi sá ǫðrum fœti í 129 against the bench and 353 brók M stokkinn ok togaði af ǫllum tugged as hard as he could, afli, ok gekk eigi af brókin. but the breeches would not come off. Then Snorri Goði came over Þá gekk til Snorri goði ok and felt the leg, and found þreifaði um fótinn ok fann, at that a spear-blade was spjót stóð í gegnum fótinn 219 Erb 45 129 logged in it between the 353 brók M milli hásinarinnar ok tendon and the shin-bone fótleggsisn ok hafði níst allt and had pinned the breeches sama, fótinn ok brókina. to the leg. en þar var tjaldat yfir but Bergthór was taken care 220 Erb 46 131 353 tjald M Bergþóri um nóttina. of for the night in a tent Snorri goði var í blári kápu ok Snorri Goði was in the lead, 221 Erb 47 134 355 kápa blár M reiðr fyrstr. wearing a black cloak. Hann tók annarri hendi í As soon as he reached Snorri 222 Erb 47 kápuermina, er þeir Snorri 134 he seized hold of his 355 kápuermr M fundusk, cloak-sleeve with one hand, 120 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work Þar var á ein kona suðreysk, er Þórgunna hét; þat sǫgdu she had brought some finery hennar skipmenn, at hon 223 Erb 50 137 with her which was difficult 357 gripi F myndi hafa gripi þá með at to obtain in Iceland. fara, at slíkir myndi torugætir á Íslandi. En er Þuríðr húsfreyja at she was very curious to see 224 Erb 50 Fróðá spyrr þetta, var henni 137 357 gripi F this finery, mikil forvitni á at sjá gripina, ǫ for she was a vain woman því at hon var glysgj rn ok skartsko 225 Erb 50 137 and fond of showy 357 F skartskona mikil; na adornment. fór hon þá til skips ok fann She went to the ship to see Þórgunnu ok spurði, ef hon Thórgunna and asked if she 226 Erb 50 137 357 búnaðr F hefði kvenbúnað nǫkkurn, had any women's attire of þann er afbragðligr væri. special quality. Hon kvezk enga gripi eiga til Thórgunna said she had 227 Erb 50 ǫ 137 357 gripi F s lu, nothing for sale, but claimed she had enough en hafa lézk hon gripi, svá at fine things to prevent her 228 Erb 50 hon væri óneist at boðum 138 357 gripi F ǫ feeling ashamed at feasts eða ðrum mannfundum. and other gatherings. Thurið asked to see her Þuríðr beiddisk at sjá gripina, 229 Erb 50 138 things, and Thórgunna 357 gripi F ok þat veitti hon henni, showed them; ok sýndusk henni vel gripirnir Thurið thought them 230 Erb 50 138 357 gripi F ok sem bezt farandi, attractive and well-made, 231 Erb 50 en eigi fémiklir. 138 and not very costly. 357 fé F 121 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work Thurið made an offer for Þuríðr falaði gripina, en 232 Erb 50 138 them, but Thórgunna would 357 gripi F Þórgunna vildi eigi selja. not sell. Þá bauð Þuríðr henni þangat Then Thurið invited her to til vistar með sér, því at hon come and stay with her, for fjǫlskrú 233 Erb 50 138 357 F vissi, at Þórgunna var she knew that Thórgunna ðig fjǫlskrúðig, liked to dress up ok hugðisk hon mundu fá and she hoped to get some 234 Erb 50 138 357 gripi F gripina af henni í tómi. clothes from her by and by. vil ek sjálf ráða, hvat ek skal I shall decide myself how 235 Erb 50 gefa fyrir 138 much I pay you from my 357 fé F mik af því fé, sem ek hefi." keep from the money I have.' She then opened the large Þá lauk hon upp ǫrkina ok tók chest and took from it a set 236 Erb 50 þar upp ór rekkjuklæði, ok 138 357 klæði F ǫ ǫ ǫ of beautifully-made váru þau ll mj k v nduð; bedclothes. breiddi hon yfir rekkjuna She spread fine English 237 Erb 50 138 357 blæja F enskar blæjur sheets and a silken quilt over the 238 Erb 50 ok silkikult; 138 357 kult silki F bed; ǫ then she took from the chest 239 Erb 50 hon tók ór rkinni rekkjurefil 138 357 rekkjurefill F bed-curtains 240 Erb 50 ok allan ársalinn með; 138 and a full canopy as well. 357 ársall F They were such fine þat var svá góðr búningr, at bed-furnishings that people 241 Erb 50 menn þóttusk eigi slíkan sét 138 357 búningr F reckoned they had never hafa þess kyns. seen the like before. 122 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work Then Thuríð, the mistress of Þá mælti Þuríðr húsfreyja: the house, asked, 'How much "Met þú við mik would you like to take for the rekkjubúnaðinn." Þórgunna bed-clothes?' Thórgunna 242 Erb 50 139 357 búnaðr F svarar: "Eigi mun ek liggja í replied, 'I am not going to lie hálmi fyrir þik, þó at þú sér on straw for your sake, no kurteis ok berisk á mikit." matter how refined and lady-like you are.' Thuríð was displeased about Þetta mislíkar Þuríði, ok falar this, and made no further 243 Erb 50 139 358 gripi F eigi optar gripina. offers to buy Thórgunna's finery from her. Thórgunna worked at the weaving every day when there was no hay-making to Þórgunna vann váðverk hvern vaðver 244 Erb 50 139 be done; when the weather 358 F dag, er eigi var heyverk; k was good she would work at drying the hay in the home-field. ok lagði af sér klæðin þau hin she took off her 245 Erb 51 140 359 klæði F blóðgu; blood-soaked clothing en af óskiptri minni eigu skal But before you divide up my 246 Erb 51 Þuríðr hafa skarlatsskikkju Þá, 142 property, Thuríð is to have 359 skikkja skarlat F er ek á; the scarlet cloak I own. geri ek þat til þess, at hon I do this so that she will not skuli létta á leggja, þótt ek sjá take it amiss if I dispose of 247 Erb 51 142 359 fé F fyrir ǫðru mínu fé, slíkt er the rest of my things as I see mér likar; fit; 123 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work She pleaded with him so sótti hon þá svá fast, at hard that he changed his honum gekksk hur við, ok 254 Erb 51 143 mind; the upshot was that 360 dýna F kom þessu máli svá, at Thórodd burned the Þóroddr brenndi dýnur eiderdown 255 Erb 51 ok hœgendi, 143 and pillows, 360 hœgendi F 256 Erb 51 en hon tók til sin kult 143 while Thuríð took the quilt, 360 kult F 257 Erb 51 ok blæjur 143 the bed-curtains 360 blæja F and the canopy, but neither ok ársalinn allan, ok líkaði þó 258 Erb 51 143 of them was really easy 360 ársall F hváringu vel. about the outcome. Líkit var sveipat líndúkum, en The corpse was wrapped in a 259 Erb 51 saumat eigi um, ok síðan lagt 143 linen shroud, but not sewed 360 dúk lín F í kistu; into it, and then coffined. gengu síðan til stofu ok fóru then they went into the main af klæðum sínum ok ætluðu room and took off their 260 Erb 51 143 360 klæði M at vera þar um nótt clothes, intending to spend matlausir, the night there without food. var þar sén kona mikil; hon they saw a tall woman there, var nǫkvið, svá at hon hafði she was stark naked, without 261 Erb 51 144 361 hlut F engan hlut á sér; hon starfaði a stitch on, and she was at matseld; preparing a meal. Eptir þetta var gǫ A lamp was now lit in the rt ljós í stófu living-room, and the visitors ok dregin af gestum klæði 262 Erb 51 144 were helped out of their wet 361 klæði M þau, er vát váru, en fengin ǫ clothes and given dry ones nnur þurr í staðinn. instead; 124 Textile Materia Descript Male/ No. Saga Ch. Old Norse P. English P. Item - Colour Name l ion Female work ok gægðisk upp á ársalinn and it stared up at 263 Erb 53 147 362 ársall F Þórgunnu. Thórgunna's bed-canopy. They sat down by the fire settusk þeir niðr við eldinn ok ta at vinda 264 Erb 54 149 and began wringing the 363 M tóku at vinda sik; sik water from their clothing. þeir skóku klæðin ok hreyttu They shook it out of their 265 Erb 54 149 363 klæði M moldinni á þá Þórodd clothing he advised them to burn the hann gaf þau ráð til, at 266 Erb 55 151 canopy from Thórgunna's 365 ársall F brenna skyldi ársal Þórgunnu, bed He pulled down Thórgunna's Kjartan tók ofan ársalinn bed-furnishings and then Þórgunnu, gekk siðan í 267 Erb 55 151 went into the fire-hall and 365 ársall F eldaskála, tók glóð af eldi ok plucked a brand from the fire gekk út með; and went outside with it; var þá brenndr allr then all the bed-furnishings 268 Erb 55 rekkjubúnaðinn, er Þórgunna 151 which had belonged to 365 búnaðr F hafði átt. Thórgunna were burned. he went into the women's 269 Erb 56 ok hann gekk í dyngjuna 153 366 dyngja M room Álfr litli hafði legit í klæðum 270 Erb 60 164 fully dressed 373 klæði M sínum; Snorri bað hann þar vera um Snorri asked him to stay the 271 Erb 61 nóttina í náðum; váru þá 166 night and rest, and he was 374 klæði M tekin klæði Þrándar. helped out of his clothes. gekk Glæsir at honum ok Glæsir went over to him and 272 Erb 63 daunsnaði um hann ok sleikði 172 sniffed at him and licked his 378 klæði M um klæði hans, clothing, 125 Appendix 2. List of sagas on Sagadb.org website A database compiled from the Modern Icelandic version of these sagas available through ​www.sagadb.org​ is occasionally referenced in the text. Bandmanna saga Hrana saga hrings Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss Kjalnesinga saga Bjarnar saga Hítdælakappa Kormáks saga Brennu-Njáls saga Króka-Refs saga Droplaugarsona saga Laxdæla saga Egils saga Skalla-Grímssonar Ljósvetninga saga Eiríks saga rauða Ölkofra saga Eyrbyggja saga Reykdæla saga og Víga Skútu Færeyinga saga Svarfdæla saga Finnbofa saga ramma Þórðar saga hreðu Fljótsdæla saga Þorsteins saga hvíta Flóamanna saga Þorsteins saga Síðu-Hallssonar Fóstbræðra saga Valla-Ljóts saga Gísla saga Súrssonar Vatnsdæla saga Grænlendinga saga Víga-Glúms saga Grettis saga Viglundar saga Gull-Þóris saga Vopnfirðinga saga Gunnars saga Keldugnúpsfífls Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu Hænsna-Þóris saga Hallfreðar saga vandræðaskalds Harðar saga og Hólmverja Hávarðar saga Ísfirðings Heiðarvíga saga Hrafnkels saga freysgoða 126 Lihtlitsents lõputöö reprodutseerimiseks ja lõputöö üldsusele kättesaadavaks tegemiseks Mina, Kait Sepp, 1. annan Tartu Ülikoolile tasuta loa (lihtlitsentsi) enda loodud teose ​“CLOTHING, TEXTILES, AND TEXTILE WORK IN SNÆFELLINGASÖGUR - a comprehensive analysis”, mille juhendajad on PhD Riina Rammo ja PhD Mart Kuldkepp, 1. reprodutseerimiseks säilitamise ja üldsusele kättesaadavaks tegemise eesmärgil, sealhulgas digitaalarhiivi DSpace-is lisamise eesmärgil kuni autoriõiguse kehtivuse tähtaja lõppemiseni; 2. üldsusele kättesaadavaks tegemiseks Tartu Ülikooli veebikeskkonna kaudu, sealhulgas digitaalarhiivi DSpace kaudu kuni autoriõiguse kehtivuse tähtaja lõppemiseni. 2. olen teadlik, et punktis 1 nimetatud õigused jäävad alles ka autorile. 3. kinnitan, et lihtlitsentsi andmisega ei rikuta teiste isikute intellektuaalomandi ega isikuandmete kaitse seadusest tulenevaid õigusi. Tartus, 16.05.2018 Kait Sepp 127 Tartu Ülikool Skandinaavia keelte ja kultuuride osakond 18. mai 2018 Käesolevaga kinnitan, et olen kirjutanud oma magistritöö “Clothing, textiles, and textile work in ​Snæfellingasögur ​ - a comprehensive analysis” iseseisvalt. Kait Sepp 128