Megyesi, BeátaLáng, BenedekKopal, NilsMikhalev, VasilyTudor, CrinaWaldispühl, MichelleWaldispühl, MichelleMegyesi, Beáta2024-05-082024-05-0820241736-6305https://hdl.handle.net/10062/98482https://doi.org/10.58009/aere-perennius0107We present an empirical study on instructions found in historical cipher keys dating back to early modern times in Europe. The study reveals that instructions in historical cipher keys are prevalent, covering a wide range of themes related to the practical application of ciphers. These include general information about the structure or usage of the cipher key, as well as specific instructions on their application. Being a hitherto neglected genre, these texts provide insight into the practice of cryptographic operations.enAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 Internationalcipherscipher keysinstructionshistorical cryptologyArticle