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E-Vote-ID 2022
(2022-10) Krimmer, Robert; Volkamer, Melanie; Duenas-Cid, David; Budurushi, Jurlind; Germann, Micha; Glondu, Stéphane; Hofer,Thomas; Krivonosova, Iuliia; Martin-Rozumilowicz, Beata; Rønne, Peter; Zollinger, Marie-Laure
This volume contains papers presented at E-Vote-ID 2022, the Seventh International JointConference on Electronic Voting, held during October 4–7, 2022. This was the first in-personconference following the COVID-19 pandemic, and, as such, it was a very special event forthe community since we returned to the traditional venue in Bregenz, Austria. The E-Vote-IDconference resulted from merging EVOTE and Vote-ID, and 18 years have now elapsed sincethe first EVOTE conference in Austria.Since that conference in 2004, over 1500 experts have attended the venue, including scholars,practitioners, authorities, electoral managers, vendors, and PhD students. E-Vote-ID collectsthe most relevant debates on the development of electronic voting, from aspects relating tosecurity and usability through to practical experiences and applications of voting systems, alsoincluding legal, social, or political aspects, amongst others, turning out to be an importantglobal referent on these issues.
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Features and usage of Belenios in 2022
(2022) Glondu, Stéphane; Gaudry, Pierrick; Cortier, Véronique
Belenios is an open-source Internet voting protocol associated to a free voting platform, launched in 2015. A detailed overview of the protocol has been presented in [6] in 2019 and its complete, up-todate specification is public [7]. Since 2019, the use of Belenios has significantly increased with more than 1,400 elections organized each year in 2020 and 2021, and a total of more than 100,000 received ballots. We report here on the new features added to Belenios since 2019 that include weighted votes, flexible counting methods (e.g. Condorcet or STV) thanks to mixnets, and crowdsourced translation with the support of more than 10 languages. Moreover, we have improved the auditability of Belenios in practice, both for voters and authorities.
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From Postal Ballots to E-Voting: Renewing the Definition and Typology of Convenience Voting
(SAGE Publications, Mary Ann Liebert, 2026-02-24) Duenas-Cid, David; Spycher-Krivonosova, Iuliia; Krimmer, Robert; Muchiri, Grace
Debates on election reforms and the use of convenience voting methods revived after the COVID-19 election postponements. In parallel, digitalization has made it necessary to revisit what we understand by convenience voting. While the term suggests that convenience voting methods inherently reduce participation costs, recent research demonstrates that such voting methods are not always perceived as convenient, nor do they necessarily make voting cheaper, easier, or more accessible. They may be introduced for reasons unrelated to participation, such as administrative efficiency, resource constraints, or even manipulation. Definitions of convenience voting methods often vary significantly across countries and contexts. This article revisits the concept of convenience voting through a meta-synthesis of 106 studies. Specifically, we (1) map existing types and definitions of convenience voting; (2) classify convenience voting methods into six archetypes; and (3) propose a revised definition of convenience voting that incorporates recent innovations in voting. This revised definition addresses the newest debate that the existing conceptualization of convenience voting might appear normativist and value-laden. The proposed conceptual clarification allows for a more empirical and positivist discussion of electoral reforms across different contexts.
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I Know, Therefore, I Trust?
(Oxford University Press, British Computer Society, 2025-12-30) Romanov, Bogdan; Duenas Cid, David; Solvak, Mihkel
Internet voting is widely adopted in Estonia, yet psychological factors influencing its acceptance remain underexplored. The increasing complexity of digital voting systems raises concerns about whether voters rely on institutional trust or personal confidence driven by knowledge. This study applies Simmel’s concept of trust, bridging ignorance and certainty, and Giddens’ differentiation between trust and confidence. These frameworks help understand how different knowledge levels influence the mechanisms voters use to decide whether to use Internet voting or not. Using post-election survey data from the 2021 local and 2023 parliamentary elections in Estonia (N = 1,153, N = 1,001), this study examines how technical knowledge moderates the relationship between trust in institutions and confidence in one’s own knowledge when it relates to Internet voting. The key independent variables include technical knowledge, confidence in the system, and trust in political institutions; the dependent variable is binary Internet voting usage. Logistic regressions are employed to assess the effects of the variables, including the set of standard socio-economic controls. Results show that confidence is the decisive factor for individuals with high levels of technical knowledge, significantly increasing their likelihood of voting online. Trust in government does not exert a consistent effect overall, with significance emerging only among respondents with high knowledge. By contrast, both trust in system performance and trust in Internet voting show robust positive main effects across the electorate, without evidence that their influence differs by knowledge level. These findings enrich the literature by influencing how knowledge conditions the role of confidence, while trust complements adoption more broadly.
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Internet voting: The role of personality traits and trust across three parliamentary elections in Estonia
(Springer, 2022-09-24) Sindermann, Cornelia; Rozgonjuk, Dmitri; Solvak, Mihkel; Realo, Anu; Vassil, Kristjan
Some countries offer options to vote in elections remotely via the internet. However, not all voters take up this opportunity. This study investigates the role of the Five-Factor Model personality traits in the choice to use internet voting, and the potential mediating effects of trust in internet voting, controlling for sociodemographic variables. Survey data collected after national elections in Estonia in 2011 (N = 482), 2015 (N = 535), and 2019 (N = 546) were analyzed. Agreeableness was positively correlated with trust in internet voting in all samples. Additionally, Agreeableness was related to internet voting via trust, but not in all samples. Internet voting was predicted by higher trust in internet voting, better PC literacy, and speaking Estonian at home, across all samples. These results indicate that easy access to, and trust in, internet voting may play a bigger role in the decision to use internet voting than personality traits.
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Pandemic-proof elections: Did COVID-19 increase the use of Internet voting?
(Department for E-Governance and Administration, University for Continuing Education Krems, 2025-12-31) Romanov, Bogdan; Solvak, Mihkel
COVID-19 forced governments to postpone elections, potentially jeopardizing the func-tionality of democratic societies by delaying regime legitimization. However, theoretically, In-ternet voting, as a mode of absentee voting, can easily overcome the pandemic circumstances by reducing the electorate's voting costs, yet the connection was not discovered. Hence, in this re-search, we decided to shed light on how COVID-19 affected voting costs and Internet voting usage, especially across at-risk groups. As a result, we explored that in the state with homogeneous i-voting diffusion, COVID-19 did not impact paper-voting and i-voting turnout, in general, and amidst the elderly population as well. First of all, these findings illustrate the existence of a saturation point in the technology acceptance rate. Additionally, the article discusses the theo-retical-empirical conceptualization of voting costs and the causal mechanism of the pandemic and turnout.
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Sixth International Joint Conference on Electronic Voting E-Vote-ID 2021. 5-8 October 2021
(University of Tartu Press, 2021) Krimmer, Robert; Volkamer, Melanie; Duenas-Cid, David; Germann, Micha; Glondu, Stéphane; Hofer, Thomas; Krivonosova, Iuliia; Kulyk, Oksana; Martin-Rozumilowicz, Beata; Rønne, Peter; Solvak, Mihkel; Zollinger, Marie-Laure
This volume contains papers presented at E-Vote-ID 2021, the Sixth International Joint Conference on Electronic Voting, held during October 5-8, 2021. Due to the extraordinary situation provoked by Covid-19 Pandemic, the conference is held online for second consecutive edition, instead of in the traditional venue in Bregenz, Austria. E-Vote-ID Conference resulted from the merging of EVOTE and Vote-ID and counting up to 17 years since the _rst E-Vote conference in Austria. Since that conference in 2004, over 1000 experts have attended the venue, including scholars, practitioners, authorities, electoral managers, vendors, and PhD Students. The conference collected the most relevant debates on the development of Electronic Voting, from aspects relating to security and usability through to practical experiences and applications of voting systems, also including legal, social or political aspects, amongst others; turning out to be an important global referent in relation to this issue. Also, this year, the conference consisted of: · Security, Usability and Technical Issues Track · Administrative, Legal, Political and Social Issues Track · Election and Practical Experiences Track · PhD Colloquium, Poster and Demo Session on the day before the conference E-VOTE-ID 2021 received 49 submissions, being, each of them, reviewed by 3 to 5 program committee members, using a double blind review process. As a result, 27 papers were accepted for its presentation in the conference. The selected papers cover a wide range of topics connected with electronic voting, including experiences and revisions of the real uses of E-voting systems and corresponding processes in elections. We would also like to thank the German Informatics Society (Gesellschaft für Informatik) with its ECOM working group and KASTEL for their partnership over many years. Further we would like to thank the Swiss Federal Chancellery and the Regional Government of Vorarlberg for their kind support. EVote-ID 2021 conference is kindly supported through European Union's Horizon 2020 projects ECEPS (grant agreement 857622) and mGov4EU (grant agreement 959072). Special thanks go to the members of the international program committee for their hard work in reviewing, discussing, and shepherding papers. They ensured the high quality of these proceedings with their knowledge and experience.
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State versus Technology: What drives trust in and usage of internet voting, institutional or technological trust?
(Elsevier, 2025-09-05) Romanov, Bogdan; Duenas Cid, David; Leets, Peeter
This study examines the combined influence of technological and institutional trust on citizens’ perceptions of and engagement with Internet voting, addressing gaps in the literature on digital governance and trust. While prior research often treats these trust dimensions separately, this article explores their interplay within the context of Estonia, which has utilized Internet voting for two decades. By constructing composite indices for technological and institutional trust through factor analysis, the study offers a novel methodological approach to operationalizing trust in digital governance (within the article, digital governance and e-governance are used interchangeably) research in general and Internet voting in particular, based on post-electoral survey data. Applying linear and logistic regression analyses, the study explicitly examines how these trust dimensions affect citizens’ trust in Internet voting systems and their actual use of such technology. The findings reveal that institutional trust is significantly more influential than technological trust, consistently emerging as the primary driver for both trusting Internet voting and engaging in its usage. Technological trust, in contrast, demonstrates only marginal predictive strength, highlighting the greater importance citizens place on institutional legitimacy, transparency, and accountability. These results emphasize the compensatory nature of institutional trust, suggesting that robust institutional frameworks allow citizens to confidently engage with complex technological systems despite limited technical understanding. Consequently, this research enhances theoretical insights into trust dynamics within digital governance, particularly in contexts where political sensitivity and institutional credibility significantly impact technology adoption.