(Non)combatants and insurgency: a comparative study of military identity in Hezbollah and Hamas

Abstract

This thesis investigates the divergent use of military uniforms by two similar non-state actors: Hezbollah and Hamas. While both groups share numerous characteristics, including Islamic ideological foundations, anti-Israeli resistance agendas, Iranian sponsorship, territorial governance, and being non-state actors, they differ significantly in one key behavioral outcome: Hezbollah frequently employs standardized military uniforms, whereas Hamas rarely does. In order to isolate the independent factors causing this behavioral divergence, the study uses Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD), which enables the control of shared variables. This thesis finds that the most compelling explanation lies in the interplay between operational environment, strategic logic, and structural incentives. Hamas’s avoidance of uniforms is a deliberate tactical adaptation to Gaza’s densely populated urban terrain, which favors stealth, civilian camouflage, and asymmetrical warfare. This decision also serves propaganda purposes, potentially inflating civilian casualty figures and enhancing international sympathy. Conversely, Hezbollah’s use of uniforms is facilitated by its more rural and mountainous, less densely populated operational environment and greater access to consistent Iranian support, which all make blending in with the civilian population less advantageous. Even though they are taken into account, theories such as shifting global recognition or resource constraints are ultimately found to be insufficient to explain the pattern that has been observed. Even though there is a resource disparity between these groups, this does not fully account for Hamas's activities, especially given its ability to fund complex infrastructure like Gaza's tunnel system. Instead, the study concludes that uniform use is best understood as a function of operational necessity, strategic objectives, and external constraints rather than material capability alone. This research contributes to the broader literature on armed non-state actors by demonstrating how variations in tactical environments and organizational strategy can lead to divergent military practices, even among otherwise similar groups.